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Line 1: − + + − + − + − “What is the self?” In traditional Western terminology, such questions belong to ontology, a study concerning the nature of reality. Epistemologically, it raises issues concerning the nature of knowledge. A third type of issue concerns the questions related to personal identity. For some, as for Locke, personal identity matters in the ethicolegal sphere, since only the same person that committed the alleged crime may be punished for it, not someone else. For some others, it is a deeply existential issue; finding the correct answer to the question “who am I?” is deemed extremely important, for a wrong answer would make a person imposter - living someone else’s life, as it were. The identity issue thus involves consideration of justice and value, and thus belongs to ethics or axiology as well.<ref name=":2">Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 75 - 92)</ref>+ + − The problem of identity thus concerns ontology, epistemology, and ethics, three major branches that comprise most of philosophy as it is conceived of in the Western tradition. In addition, the question, “Who am I?” is directly concerned with both - the philosophical inquiry about nature of selfhood and with practical issues concerning social and personal identity. Answers to this question have profound social and existential implications.+ − There have been endless controversies in the Indian as well as Western traditions on the putative existence, nature, knowledge, and value of whatever that has been called the self. The problem of identity thus relates to the most profound personal and ideological dilemmas. As such, the discovery of one’s true selfhood becomes a most crucial issue in life.+ − “Know thyself” was a most important exhortation in ancient Greece. Similarly, in ancient India, Yajnavalkya exhorted that the Self ought to be the subject to know about and mediate upon. The self continues to be an important topic of inquiry to many philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, as well countless other persons of varied backgrounds.<ref name=":2" />+ + − === Defining Self - Western Tradition ===+ − Allport (1943) identified the following different meanings that the term ego had acquired by the time of his writing: the self as<ref name=":2" /> − # a knower, + − # an object of knowledge − # primitive selfishness − # dominance drive − # passive organization of mental processes − # a “fighter for ends” − # a behavioral system − # a subjective organization of culture. − About a decade later, Allport (1955) critically considered seven more concepts closely related to self and ego: the bodily sense, self-identity, ego enhancement, ego extension, rational agent, self-image, and propriate striving. He also mentioned yet another definition of the self, suggested by P. A. Bertocci (1945), as a “knower, thinker, feeler, and doer - all in one blended unit of a sort that guarantees the continuance of all becoming.” Interestingly, this definition of the self is an almost exact translation of the Upanishadic view of the person as one who knows, feels, and acts (jñata, bhokta, karta).<ref name=":2" /> + + − Seminal contributions in defining selfhood came from the works of William James, C. H. Cooley, G. H. Mead, and Freud, whose ideas have continued to the revival in psychological studies of selfhood and related topics. Many other Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume, Leibniz, Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Skinner and later on Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg to name a few, denied or affirmed the existence of Self and proposed modern theories about self and knowledge. In the present article only those western perspectives which are similar to the Upanishadic concepts have been discussed as they pertain to the scope of the topic.<ref name=":2" /> + − === Defining Self - Indian Tradition ===+ − Many Indian and Western scholars, in the recent decades have studied and presented the concept of self based on Indian perspectives given in the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Vedas]], [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varna and ashrama dharmas]], [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]], in the philosophical texts such as the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|shad-darshanas]], the Brahmasutras, the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], the Itihasas, the Puranas, and Tantras etc., all of which influence the Indian psychological make-up.<ref name=":0">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 65 - 91)</ref> − In Kathopanishad, the nature of Self is summarized by Yama as the eternal principle in person that never changes.<ref name=":3">Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 116 - 122)</ref><blockquote>''"This principle, Yama says, is tinier than the atom and larger than the largest of things, it is the One underlying the Many, the Permanent (nitya) behind the Ephemeral (anitya) in the entire universe. It cannot be divided or destroyed; the Self is not killed by the destruction of the body. It is by knowing the changeless Self behind all the changes that one attains immortality."''</blockquote>A few important Upanishadic references dealing with the two central topics of inquiry: the nature of the Self and the nature of reality as a whole, are mentioned below.<ref name=":3" />+ + − + − # '''Svetashvatara Upanishad''' where the nature of self and reality, the origin of the world, Brahman etc., are discussed. Self is referred to as an enjoyer and sufferer in life (bhokta). + − + − − # '''Mandukya Upanishad''' (12 mantras) declares that self is identical with the Brahman. It describes the mode of knowing self, and distinguishing the various states of consciousness viz., wakeful state, dream state, deep sleep state, turiya or fourth state. − It is significant to note that the Self affirmed by the Upanishads is derived from the fourth state of consciousness, the like of which is not usually recognized either by contemporary psychology or by the empiricist or rationalist epistemologies shaped by the Enlightenment thinkers. This is where we can see some of the deepest differences between the Indian and Western epistemologies in general, and psychologies in particular.<ref name=":3" />+ − Although the Upanishads were concerned with overcoming suffering, they were not motivated by the concern to avoid damnation on the Day of Judgment, as was Descartes. Unlike Descartes, whose “meditations” essentially displayed an exercise of the power of reasoning, the Upanishadic quest was fundamentally contemplative. Indeed, the Upanishads inspired a psychology and a view of consciousness radically different from Western psychology in the shadow of Descartes. By and large, Western psychology has neglected the evidence of the altered and “higher” states of consciousness. The primary reason for such neglect is that the so-called “higher” states attainable through various forms of meditation or contemplation have been considered “mystical,” a term which has unfortunately acquired several pejorative connotations, such as mysterious, irrational, and dangerous. What the Upanishads offer is not simply a doctrinaire affirmation of the Self, plus some verbal pointers to an essentially indescribable Self; they also offer a clear account of what would be attained through the experience of the Self, and suggest specific ways to get it.<ref name=":3" /> + − Of the six darshana shastras, the Vedanta is the strongest supporter of the doctrine of the Self. The Sankhya and Yoga also affirm a permanent Self. + − === Terminologies of Consciousness and Self ===+ − In many texts we find the two related terms “consciousness” and “self” used and expressed in various ways. In this section, the two concepts are clarified, the different senses they convey and their notations are discussed.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 94)</ref> − # '''Self''' (with a capital "S") at the universal level: Absolute and universal (as Brahman in Advaita). The Upanishadic conception of the Brahman is that it is Consciousness and Supreme Self at the same time. Consciousness and Self are considered in their most abstract and universal form.+ − # '''''self''''' (with a lower case "s" and italicized) at an individual level: ''consciousness'' as-such, at the level of the individual - without having the role of an agent (as purusha in Samkhya-Yoga), - in the role of a witness (as [[Atman (आत्मन्)|atman]] or sakshin in Vedanta). − # '''self''' (with a lower case "s") at the bodily level: A person who wills, acts and feels, the Jīva (empirical self) in Advaita. Jiva is embodied consciousness, whereas jiva-sākṣin (as in ''self'') is the witnessing ''consciousness''. We may also use “self” in a general nonspecific sense to refer to self at all its levels, where a distinction is not warranted. − == Jiva - A Composite of Sharira, Manas and Atman ==+ − A human being is not merely confined to the appearance it projects, that is, the physical contours and aspects of the body. It is a collection of three bodies (sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) encompassing the gross elements to the subtle layers of the mind that act as encasements for the true Self. The Taittiriya Upanishad presents the Vedic conceptualization of the mind-body complex, i.e., jiva.<ref>Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref> − Indian psychology involves the study of the [[Jiva (जीवः)]] referred to in Vedanta, as a composite human being. Jīva, which literally means a living being, is often used in Indian thought as a technical term that is the closest to what is called “person” in contemporary psychology. As per Vedanta, a jiva is conceived as a multilayered entity, consisting of body ([[Sharira (शरीरम्)|Sharira]]), mind ([[Manas (मनः)|Manas]]), and consciousness ([[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]). Jiva is the knower (jñātā), enjoyer/sufferer (bhoktā), and agent of action (kartā). [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]] texts present a similar definition of a person. With regard to their role in psychological aspects, we have the following activities for each of the layers of the Jiva.<ref name=":1">Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 5 - 9)</ref>+ − *'''Body''' refers to the nervous system, the senses ([[Indriyas (इन्द्रियाणि)|Indriyas]]), and associated structures connected with the brain. Body is the source of natural appetites, which translate themselves into desires, urges, cravings, and longings in the mind.+ − *'''Mind''' ([[Manas (मनः)|manas]]) is the hypothetical cognitive instrument related to the body at one end and consciousness at the other. − *'''Consciousness''' is conceived to be irreducibly distinct from body and mind. It constitutes the nonphysical aspect of the person. It is the source of subjectivity and the very base of one’s experience of being, knowing, and feeling. − From the functional point of view a person functions at three different levels using the above three parts of the composite.<ref name=":1" />+ − * A person is capable of processing information from the sense-organs through the instrumentalities of the body. This may be called the level of ''observation''. Thus the sense organs are data collection points situated in the gross aspect of Jiva, namely the body.+ − * A person is capable of thinking, feeling and acting based on the mind's processing of information received from the sense-organs. This level of ''understanding'' is facilitated by the functioning of the mind. The mind is the data processor situated in the subtle aspect of Jiva. + − * A person's mental faculties after appropriate sadhana, participate with the consciousness as-such (the Atman) relatively, if not absolutely, free from the bodily processes or their influence. This level is transcognitive realization of truth. In such a state, a person experiences the ''consciousness'' as-such, becomes aware of the truth ''self'', and of what is real. − The concepts of shravana (literally hearing, but can be equated with observation in general), manana (thinking/understanding), and nididhyasana (meditative realization) roughly correspond to the three levels of knowing. At the level of shravana and manana, observations and understanding, there is a basic distinction between subject and object and thought and action. Knowing and being are dissociated. In meditative realization, a state achieved by nidhidhyasana, the distinction between subject and object disappears; thought and action, knowing and being blend into each other.<ref name=":1" />+ − Body, mind, and consciousness are not only conceptually distinct, but are also mutually irreducible in the human context. Consciousness is qualitatively different from the body and the mind with which it may be associated. For this reason, though it is associated with a mind at a given time, it does not interact with it. The body and the mind, unlike consciousness, are physical; and they can interact with each other and are influenced by each other. However, it is important to note that a mind cannot be reduced into its physical constituents and a body cannot be transformed into a mind even though they influence each other within a person. They function differently. From this perspective, the body is conceived as gross matter that permits disintegration. However, mind being a subtle form of matter is not constrained by spatiotemporal variables in the same manner as the gross body does. The body disintegrates irretrievably at death. The mind, however, has the potential to survive bodily death.<ref name=":1" />+ − == Indian Concept of Self ==+ − [[File:Indian-concept-of-self-Physical-social-psychological-and-metaphysical.png|right|frameless|310x310px]] − − === Metaphysical and Physical Self === − In previous section we saw how the Jīva or the person, is a unique composite of consciousness, mind, and body. A review of the study of self in India reveals that indeed the core of Indian ''self'' is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as psychologists. Thus we find a general agreement that the '''metaphysical ''self'', [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]''', is the real Self and it is embodied in a biological or physical body of the composite '''[[Jiva (जीवः)]]'''. This core distinction of Jiva from a mere human body is reflected in the treatment methods adopted in Ayurveda unlike those in modern medicine where a person is limited to a physical self.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> − − The unity of the person, despite constantly changing mental states and bodily conditions, is a function of the presence/reflection of Atman (''consciousness'' as-such). Here a distinction needs to be made between ''consciousnesses'' as-such identified as [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], or [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], and awareness. ''Consciousness'' as-such is unchanging and ineffable. It is indeterminate and unqualified, and as such it takes no forms. In the context of cognitive activity, its role is no more than to reflect/illumine the form the mind takes in its interaction with the world through the sensory gateways. Awareness is the result of consciousness illuminating the forms the mind takes. The person whose mind acts through the bodily apparatus may be considered conditioned because of thought, passion, and action are biased and distorted by the conditions of the body. Only an unconditioned person can have the true reflections of consciousness as-such. The goal of the person is to reach such an unconditioned state.<ref name=":1" /> − − === Psychological Self === − Beyond the physical self exist psychological self and social self, and both these concepts are brimming with cultural constructions. For example, the varna system is an important part of Indian social self, which has relevance for the Indian population and the Indian Diaspora but little relevance for other cultures. The manas or mind, chitta, buddhi, ahankara etc., form the psychological constructs of the person and are critical in understanding the psyche of Indians.<ref name=":0" /> − − According to Dr. Bhawuk<ref name=":0" />, Shrimad Bhagavadgita, explains the relationship between the physical body, sense organs, manas, buddhi, and Atman. Buddhi is the closest to Atman, but if it is outward focused, it guides manas to explore the world through the senses and the body enjoying such activities and their outcomes. However, when buddhi becomes inward focused towards Atman, manas becomes inward focused, detaching itself from the senses and body. They (body and senses) scan but do not desire to acquire anything from the environment. Manas remains in what is referred to as yadṛcchālābhasantuṣṭaḥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22) or satisfied with whatever is offered by the environment without asking. The state of a Jnani is explained as follows.<blockquote>यदृच्छालाभसन्तुष्टो द्वन्द्वातीतो विमत्सरः । समः सिद्धावसिद्धौ च कृत्वापि न निबध्यते ॥ ४-२२॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22)</blockquote>Meaning: Content with what comes to him without effort, free from the pairs-of-opposites and envy, even-minded in success and failure, though acting he is not bound. − − A person must use buddhi for purification of the self, though it is subtle and does not seem to have any agency. Here the focus is on engaging the manas inwards with the buddhi, gradually eliminating outward attachments and withdrawing from the worldly activities. Apart from the focus, the gunas, sattva, rajas and tamas also play a significant role in determining the decisions the buddhi takes. Ahamkara used in the sense of ego, as in the concept of self in the West is because of its value in understanding how we perform activities.<ref name=":0" /> − − === Social Self === − In an attempt to differentiate the Indian concept of social self from that of the people in the West, some cross-cultural psychologists have shown that Indians have both independent and interdependent selves and are both individualistic and collectivist in their cognition. (Bhawuk page 90) − − There are many factors (social, economic, cultural, regional, ecological) that contribute towards the social self construct of person. − − # Identity based on Varna System − # Identity based on Ashrama System − # Spiritual identity − # National identity − # Regional identity − # Workplace identity − − ==== Social self based on Varnaashramas ==== − The metaphysical self, Atman is embodied in a biological or physical self, and through the [[Varna Dharma (वर्णधर्मः)|varna system]] right at birth, the biological self acquires a '''social self'''. With changing times though there is little adherence to the ashrama system on a mass scale, the idea and social construct still persists. With advancing age it is still not unusual for people to start slowing down on their worldly commitments and pass on the baton to the next generation. Depending on which phase of life one is in, the self is viewed differently. Lifestyle completely changes from phase to phase of the [[Ashrama Dharma (आश्रमधर्मः)|ashrama system]]. For example, as a student one ate less (alpahari), as a [[Grhasthashrama (गृहस्थाश्रमः)|grhastha]] there was no restriction on food, as a vanprastha he ate fruits and roots and as a sanyasi he begged for food and ate unconcernedly about taste. [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|Varna and Ashrama dharmas]] clearly defined one's occupation and role in the society and therefore, the Indian concept of Self is socially constructed and varies with occupation and stage of an Indian.<ref name=":0" /> − − ==== Social self based on Spiritual Identity ==== − Spirituality can be seen to permeate the masses in India, and social life revolves around rituals that work as a symbolic reminder that people in this culture value spirituality. Small (e.g., vratas and pujas in a week, a paksha, monthly, annually), and big celebrations (such as the Kumbh Mela which meets every 12 years) mark the Indian lifestyle. Every day is dedicated to a deity and every person can choose a deity of his or her choice to worship.<ref name=":0" /> − − ==== Social self based on Regional, Cultural and National Identities ==== − Most people in India carry a regional identity, which is second to their carrying the national identity, being an Indian. People have regional identities since the Indian states are organized according to linguistic groups. A person, is a Bengali, Tamil, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Asami, Malayalee, Bihari, Punjabi, Sindhi, and so forth. In Uttar Pradesh, people are referred to as Banarasi Babu, Avadh ke Nawab, and so forth in daily conversation, which also alludes to regional identity. These regions are so large that they also have their own special food, clothing, music, art, and literature. Thus, each is a culture unto itself, and only a few hundred years ago many of them also had a national identity. Thus, it makes sense for people to have a cultural identity embedded in the region. There are also similarities across these regions that make it possible for people to forge a national identity. History provides context for culture, and thus, regional identity is important for people in India.<ref name=":0" /> − − === Opposing Social and Spiritual Dimensions === − [[File:Indian Concept of Self - Social and Spiritual Dimensions.png|right|frameless]] − The social self not only consists of physical or psychological traits sampled more often by individualists who have an independent concept of self, but also the social relationships and identity descriptors. Besides these there are other elements of self that get added to our identity box as one advances in career, and acquire wealth, a house, special equipment and professional success. Indulgences to gratify various needs, further draws a person towards the ego-enhancing objects and luxuries. All these lead to an endless, perhaps infinite, growth in our social self.<ref name=":0" /> − − The realization or anubhuti of Atman attaining unity with the Supreme Being, brahman, is the goal of the human being. − − In that paradigm, when one experiences the real self, one experiences boundlessness or infinite state of supreme being. In other words, much like the social self that has the potential to grow infinitely, the real self has the potential to be limitless. Thus, the Indian concept of self expands to be infinite socially and contracts socially for the true self to expand to be infinite metaphysically. This conceptualization of the self is critical to the understanding of psychological processes in the Indian cultural context.<ref name=":0" /> − − == Psychological Study of Self at various Levels == − A person (jiva) may be studied from<ref name=":1" /> − * a physiological perspective to assess influence of bodily processes on mental states and vice-versa. − * the psychophysical perspectives of the mind to learn its functionality, factors influencing, controlling, and enhancing human potential and wellbeing. − * the psycho-spiritual perspectives derived from the mind-consciousness association to understand and realize about the non-physical resources of human functioning available due to the association of the mind with ''consciousness'' as-such. − − Thus a person can be studied at various levels; two of which are most highly pertinent to psychology - the psychophysical and psycho-spiritual levels. The various concepts of self, are well grounded in different Indian philosophical and vedantic texts. The metaphysical self is most commonly visualized as [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], which is situated in a living being as a result of past [[Karma (कर्म)|karma]]. The physical self can further be classified as [[Sharira Traya (शरीरत्रयम्)|sharira-traya]] (the three bodies - sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) or [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|panchakoshas]] (constituting - annamaya, pranamaya, manomaya, vijnanamaya and anandamaya koshas). While social self is manifested by the various beings in different ways at different proportions, human beings are believed to be the only ones who can pursue [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]] (or liberation) [[Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ:)|purushartha]], enlightenment, jnana (or knowledge), or self-realization. − − == Concept of Self in Indian Tradition == − − === Panchakosha model of self === − Based on the Panchakoshas presented in the Taittriya Upanishad the following classification gives rise to a model of Self having the following elements.<ref name=":0" /> − {| class="wikitable" − |+Indian Concept of Self and Relation to Panchakoshas<ref name=":0" /> − !Self − !Kosha − !Elements − !Functions − !Factors Affecting Growth − |- − |Metaphysical Self (the I-ness) - Subtlest − |Anandamaya Kosha − |Jivatma (Atman Embodied) − |Kartrtva (doer) and Bhoktrtva (enjoyer) − |Sadhana margas − Yoga etc. − |- − | rowspan="2" |Psychological Self (Mental and Cognitive faculty) Subtle − |Vijnanamaya Kosha − |Buddhi (the discriminative decision making faculty) − |''vijñāna''—understanding, knowing, direct cognition, wisdom, intuition and creativity. − | rowspan="2" |Sadhana margas − Yoga etc. − |- − |Manomaya Kosha − |Manas, (the cognitive faculty) Antahkarana − Ahamkara − |understanding, − − thoughts, ideas perception, processing the inputs of sense-organs − |- − | rowspan="2" |Physical Self (Physiological − and Physical faculties) Gross − |Pranamaya Kosha − |Physiological functions of the body − |Functional aspects of the body such as breathing, excretion, digestion etc. − | rowspan="2" |Material Lifestyle − |- − |Annamaya Kosha − |The physical body made of panchabhutas − |Human body and its parts such as, tissues, bones, skin, organs etc. − |} − − == Sadhana and The Psychological Self == − The inwardly directed individual Self perceives vaguely its latent infinitude and realises gradually that its limitation and bondage are not inherent in its nature but are rather imposed on it, and wants somehow to shake them off and thus realise its full autonomy. Liberation or vimukti is identical with freedom, and freedom is expansion. It is the gross outward matter and contact with matter that have made the Self appear limited. The deeper and deeper we dive into Self, the more of expansion, freedom and light do we feel and enjoy. The conscious urge of the finite to become more and more expanded till it realises its infinitude is what is really meant by mumukshutva (desire for liberation) which forms the unmistakable first step in the course of, Sadhana.<ref name=":5" /> − − == Sadhana Margas == − − ====Karma Marga==== − The earliest form of [[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] advocated by the Vedas is [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]]. Of the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|six astika darshanas]], Purva Mimamsa engaged with the Karma philosophy. The term Karma, however, was used in a limited sense to denote the various yajnas. In a broad sense, it includes all actions, physical and psychical, although it is usually limited to bodily actions.<ref>Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 91- )</ref> − − ====Jnana Marga==== − The objective of life is to experience the ultimate ontological truth - Self is Brahman - and the way to pursue it is through vairagya (renunciation) captured by the attributes of knowledge (Sadhana by Jnana-marga) is presented in the thirteenth adhyaya of Bhagavadgita. In other words, epistemology or the Indian theory of knowledge is to be able to live and experience the ontological belief that brahman is in everything in the universe, and it is practiced through a meticulous lifestyle filled with positivity.<ref name=":6">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 170-171)</ref> − − Line 212:
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Sadhana and Indian Psychology (साधनं मनोविज्ञानं च) (view source)
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[[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] begins with the consciousness of the existence of some Supreme Power, an intimate connection or rather a conscious union with which is deemed absolutely essential to the realization of the ''summum bonum'' of life.<ref name=":5">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Page 61-75)</ref>
[[File:Paths in Human Life.png|right|frameless|379x379px|Courtesy: Prof. Dharm Bhawuk]]
[[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] begins with the consciousness of the existence of some Supreme Power, an intimate connection or rather a conscious union with which is deemed absolutely essential to the realization of the ''summum bonum'' of life.<ref name=":5">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Page 61-75)</ref>
This Supreme Power has sometimes been regarded as the Higher Self of man himself and not any foreign power with whom only an external connection could possibly be established. Sadhana, thus means the conscious effort at unfolding the latent possibilities of the individual self and is hence limited to human beings alone. Only in man a special equipment, viz. '''a conscious effort''' apparently separate from the activities of nature, comes into being.<ref name=":5" />
This Supreme Power has sometimes been regarded as the Higher Self of man himself and not any foreign power with whom only an external connection could possibly be established. Sadhana, thus means the conscious effort at unfolding the latent possibilities of the individual self and is hence limited to human beings alone. Only in man a special equipment, viz., '''a conscious effort''' apparently separate from the activities of nature, comes into being.<ref name=":5" />
Indian psychology, is a system of psychology that is rooted in classical Indian thought and is implied in numerous techniques prevalent in the subcontinent for psycho-spiritual development such as the various forms of yoga.
Indian psychology, is a system of psychology that is rooted in classical Indian thought and is implied in numerous techniques prevalent in the subcontinent for psycho-spiritual development such as the various forms of yoga.
== Indian Concept of Self ==
== Opposing Social and Spiritual Dimensions ==
[[File:Indian Concept of Self - Social and Spiritual Dimensions.png|right|frameless|332x332px]]
While understanding the [[Indian Concept of Self|Indian concept of Self]], it was studied that the expansion of self happens in two directions. When the manas or mind turns outwards and in association with sense-organs, driven by desires (sankalpas) and attachments (mamakara), there is an explosive growth of social self. Thus, the physical self gets integrated with the social self in the social system. Jiva gets entangled in various aspects of social identities such as varna, ashrama, national and regional identities. Besides these there are other elements of self that get added to the identity box as one advances in career, and acquire wealth, a house, special equipment and professional success. A person gets caught in the web of kama, krodha, lobha, moha, mada and matsara, (arishadvargas or six enemies) which alter his psychological make-up. Indulgences to gratify various needs, further draws a person towards the ego-enhancing objects and luxuries. All these lead to an endless, perhaps infinite, growth in our social self.<ref name=":0">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 65 - 91)</ref>
When one stops worrying about the fruits of one’s efforts, performs one’s duties by controlling the senses with the manas, and allows the karma-indriyas to perform their tasks without any anxiety, then slowly one begins to withdraw from the hustle and bustle of the world and begins to be inner centered. Thus, the social self starts to lose its meaning for the person, for it is an external identity, and the person begins to be anchored inside, on the inner self, following this path. In this journey towards the ''self (atman)'', the physical self and social self start to slowly melt, and when the intellect of the person becomes stable, then one realizes the Atman or the real self. <blockquote>प्रजहाति यदा कामान्सर्वान्पार्थ मनोगतान् । आत्मन्येवात्मना तुष्टः स्थितप्रज्ञस्तदोच्यते ॥ २-५५॥ (Bhag. Gita. 2.55) </blockquote>Meaning: When a man completely casts off, O Partha, all the desires of the mind, and is satisfied in the (inner) ''self'' by the self (mind), then is he said to be one of steady wisdom.
This melting of the self is just the opposite of the explosive growth of the social self.<ref>Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 103-104)</ref> Thus, the Indian concept of self expands to be infinite socially and contracts socially for the true self to expand to be infinite metaphysically. This conceptualization of the self is critical to the understanding of psychological processes in the Indian cultural context.<ref name=":0" />
== Role of Psychological Self in Sadhana ==
The Self (defining which is based on the sampradaya) is not ordinarily realized by us because of its extreme fineness and minuteness. The Buddhi is to acquire microscopic vision (drsyate tvagryaya buddhya) through repeated acts of concentration if it is to have an intuition of the Self. The whole aim of Sadhana in the Indian traditions with its innumerable details (which seem very often useless and unmeaning) is to gradually educate the mind towards concentration. It enjoins rigid discipline, scrutiny in every action (from waking up in the morning till retiring in the night) and emphasizes upon minute and detailed regulation of life. It may appear meaningless or even absurd to many, however, such practices offer the required training to a novice whose mind takes interest in everything presented to it and diffuses its energy. It should be noted that many disciplinary practices are not enjoined for all, there are exemptions based on many factors including the capacities of different individuals. Shruti emphasized that the real Self can be attained through the mind and mind alone.<blockquote>मनसैवानुद्रष्टव्यं नेह नानास्ति किं चन । मृत्योः स मृत्युमाप्नोति य इह नानेव पश्यति। बृह. ४,४.१९ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 4.4.19)</blockquote>This Brahman must be realized by the mind alone after steady and constant reflection. In Brahman that is to be realized, there is no duality or diversity. He who sees here, as though it were many, goes from death to death (attains the cycles of samsara).<ref>Dr. N. S. Ananta Rangacharya (2004) ''Prinicipal Upanishads, Volume 3, Brhdaranyakopanishat. Text, English Translation and Brief notes according to Sri Ranga Ramanujamuni.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers (Pages 311)</ref>
The inwardly directed individual ''self'' perceives vaguely its latent infinitude and realizes gradually that its limitation and bondage are not inherent in its nature but are rather imposed on it, and wants somehow to shake them off and thus realise its full autonomy. Liberation or vimukti is identical with freedom, and freedom is expansion. It is the gross outward matter and contact with matter that have made the ''self'' appear limited. The deeper and deeper one dives into ''self'', the more of expansion, freedom and light does one feel and enjoy. This conscious urge of the finite to become more and more, expands till it realizes its infinitude - is what is really meant by mumukshutva (desire for liberation) which forms the unmistakable first step in the course of, Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />
The course of discipline or Sadhana strengthens the finite consciousness step after step and gradually unfolds the infinitude that was all along latent in the same. Sadhana, is completed when no foreign element, no matter, no ‘other,’ remains as an unresolved contradiction or opposition, and when the ''self'' has established its sovereignty not by opposing itself to matter, but by resolving matter completely unto itself.<ref>Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Page 46-48)</ref>
== Paths of Sadhana ==
[[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] can be performed in different ways and as such broadly it involves either or both of the two paths - mental or physical, but the eventual change it brings about is in psychological status of the sadhaka. The value of the different forms of Sadhana are best understood, if we consider the respective contributions of each, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana, towards the development of the Sadhaka for the attainment of his goal. They are not to be regarded strictly as independent forms of Sadhana in the sense that only one of them is sufficient for the attainment of the goal. These three are intimately connected with one another, and the co-operation of all of them is necessary for the realisation of the ideal. Modern Psychology no longer believes in the compartmental division of the Faculty Psychologists, but firmly establishes the inter-connection of the various aspects of the mind. Over-emphasis or undue focus on only one aspect eclipses or paralyzes the mind of a sadhaka, and is best avoided. The keyword is achieving moderation or balance and the best path is usually very personal based on the sadhaka's temperaments, his/her personal merits and deficiencies where improvement is required to achieve the goal. This working in moderation is also emphasized in the Gita where we find Yoga described as ‘samatvam’ (balance). The natural bent or aptitude determines the particular line of Sadhana for every particular Sadhaka, but it is never to be forgotten that the particular line is merely an occasion or the main support for the development of all the different aspects.<ref name=":1" />
According to Dr. Nalinikanta Brahma, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana may be regarded as disciplines suiting three different stages in the course of development of the Sadhaka. All controversy arises when this aspect of mutual co-operation is lost sight of, and undue importance or unmerited neglect is accorded to one or other of these aspects. Shrimad Bhagavata Purana, mentions that for a Sadhaka,<blockquote>तावत् कर्माणि कुर्वीत न निर्विद्येत यावता । मत्कथाश्रवणादौ वा श्रद्धा यावन्न जायते ॥ ९ ॥ (Bhag. Pura. 11.20.9)</blockquote>Karma has to be performed until one does not feel dissatisfied (towards it) and after attaining a faith by listening to the divine stories etc., (either for bhakti or jnana), all karmas should be renounced.<ref name=":1" />
Karma has very often been downplayed by the advocates of jnana and bhakti. Karma (specifically those proceeding from desires) and jnana are incompatibles, declare the advocates of Jnana-marga, as one is the result of ignorance (avidya) and the other involves true knowledge (vidya).
===Karma Marga - Attainment of purification of sharira and manas===
The earliest form of [[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] advocated by the Vedas is [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]]. In this path of sadhana we may note different routes taken by various texts.
# [[Yajnavalkya Maitreyi samvada (याज्ञवल्क्यमैत्रेय्योः संवादः)|Yajnavalkya Maitreyi Samvada]] in '''Brhdaranyaka Upanishad''' (2.3.1-14; 4.5.1-15) which is the dialogue about the nature of Self.
# Karmas which include the Vaidika yajnas (dravya-yajnas), vidhis to propitiate the deities (Mimamsa), upasanas (mental processes), tantra etc., to attain results such as residence in the higher worlds, but not freedom (moksha).
# Ashtanga-yoga system includes regulation of physical and physiological (bodily) processes to control the vrittis of the manas.
# [[Yama Nachiketa Samvada (यमनचिकेतसोः संवादः)|Yama Nachiketa Samvada]] in '''Kathopanishad''' where the nature of self is described. Self is experienced when, through the practice of Yoga, the five senses are held back, the mind is undistracted, and the intellect is stabilized.
# Tantras lay special emphasis on the process to control the Shat-chakras and Sushumna nadi for spiritual progress. It also combines elements of yoga, worship, prayer and meditation for purification.
# '''Taittriya Upanishad''' (2.1) describes that the Brahman is to be attained through the realization of the Self as the Truth (satyam), Knowledge (jñanam), and Infinite (anantam). It further describes the nature of self as consisting of Ananda (Tait. Upan. 2.5).
In this path of sadhana, physical actions are performed (including daily worship, chores and ritualistic acts) such that they ultimately lead to a state of '''desirelessness'''. Of the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|six astika darshanas]], Purva [[Mimamsa Darshana (मीमांसादर्शनम्)|Mimamsa]], founded by Maharshi Jaimini, is engaged with Karma, mainly with respect to the various [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Such rites and ceremonies advocated in this darshana shastra are limited in that they grant the performer (yajamana) a place of residence in swargaloka but are incompetent to award [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]].
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] and [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|Smrtis]] use the term to mean such actions as daily worship (sandhya etc.), fixed religious observances, fastings, etc., and divide all such karmas into three groups, viz., nitya, naimittika, and kamya based on the periodicity and goal of such actions. Such mental processes as meditation and reflection (dhyana and vichara) are generally excluded from the province of Karma by the Vedantists. Almost all the Vedantic thinkers, however, agree in holding that only nitya karmas are useful towards jnana (by removing obstacles), kamya karmas being always excluded as they give rise to karmaphala that become positive hinderence to jnana.<ref name=":1">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 91- 116)</ref>
The Sadhaka has to begin with karma, that being perfectly suitable to the beginner who is not yet purified in body and mind. It is karma that purifies the mind of the Sadhaka and makes him fit for the acquisition of higher truths. Adishankaracharya stresses that <blockquote>अपेक्षते च विद्या सर्वाण्याश्रमकर्माणि नात्यन्तमनपेक्षैव। ...उत्पन्ना हि विद्या फलसिद्धिं प्रति न किंचिदन्यदपेक्षते उत्पत्तिं प्रति तु अपेक्षते (Shankara Bhashya on Brahma Sutras 3.4.26)</blockquote>All karmas (yajnas and related rituals) are useful for origination of knowledge. Even the scriptures prescribe them as they serve an indirect means to the attainment of knowledge.<ref>Brahmasutras by Swami Sivananda (Shankaracharya's Bhashyam on [https://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_0/Brahma.Sutra.3.4.html सर्वापेक्षा च यज्ञादिश्रुतेर् अश्ववत् । ( ब्रसू-३,४.२६ । )]</ref>
There is incompatibility of jnana and karma only when jnana had been reached and not before that stage. That each jnana and karma margas have their own place in a Sadhaka's life, is reinforced in Shrimad Bhagavadgita<blockquote>श्रेयान्द्रव्यमयाद्यज्ञाज्ज्ञानयज्ञः परन्तप । सर्वं कर्माखिलं पार्थ ज्ञाने परिसमाप्यते ॥ ४-३३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.33)</blockquote>Superior is Jnana yajna above Yajnas involving material offerings. All karmas (actions) in their entirety, O Partha, culminate in Knowledge (jnana).<ref name=":1" />
Further, karma, by removing all obstacles and sins, prepare the ground for the attainment of knowledge. Yogavasishta, describes a clear distinction between the stage of choosing actions for moral excellence (primacy of will) and another stage surpassing the moral realms (transcendence). <blockquote>शुभाशुभाभ्यां मार्गाभ्यां वहन्ती वासनासरित् । पौरुषेण प्रयत्नेन योजनीया शुभे पथि ।। ३०
अशुभेषु समाविष्टं शुभेष्वेवावतारय । स्वं मनः पुरुषार्थेन बलेन बलिनां वर ।। ३१ (Yoga. Vasi. 2.9.30-31)<ref>Yogavashistam, Mumukshu-vyavahara prakarana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8_(%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Prakarana 2 Sarga 9])</ref></blockquote>Summary: The stream of desires (vasanas) flows along two courses, good and bad; through strong human efforts, it should be directed along the good course. When the mind is bent upon evil desires, O Mighty among the mightiest, you should keep it engaged in good and holy ones through effort of will.<ref name=":1" />
These couplets indicate the stage of preparation where moral excellence is strongly emphasised, and where the constant performance of holy deeds and the constant meditation of holy thoughts, purity of both body and mind, are urged to be absolutely essential. The prescribed good actions have to be performed mainly to divert the mind from evil as well as purifying it, ridding it of impurities and anxieties preparing it to rise above all desires (including the good desires).<ref name=":1" />
A daily routine consisting of physical activities (in the form of Yoga), followed by worship, prayer, reading the shastras etc., is followed merely because it is the prescribed by the shastras. Being a novice a Sadhaka does not fully grasp the spirit of these practices, but as the practice continues, they become pleasant and gets naturally attracted to the object of worship. Worship and the prescribed service become works of love, as they mean more than anything to the sadhaka at this stage. The stage of karma next gives place to the stage of bhakti or devotion, where a spontaneous and natural attraction for the object of worship characterizes the mental attitude of the Sadhaka. Thus, progress and development of every sort depends upon the harmonious working of both the active (karma) and the contemplative (jnana) aspects of the human nature. <ref name=":1" />
So long as the Sadhaka does not attain the aparoksanubhuti (the direct realisation of the self), all actions proceed from him as the subject and the agent; but as soon as the real nature (svarupa) of the self is directly realised, action ceases to proceed from him. It is not to be apprehended, however, that all bodily movements must cease as soon as desires cease, such a Jnani performs karma (prarabdha) without having attachment to its fruits. Neither are the operations of the bodily organs such as eyes, ears etc., nor the mental operations blocked from performing their karma in such a Jnani. He becomes a [[Jivanmukta (जीवन्मुक्तः)|jivanmukta]]. Actions of a jivanmukta do not proceed from will or desire (kamasamkalpavarjita), but they come out spontaneously.<ref name=":1" />
===Jnana Marga - Atmopasana, Aparokshanubhuti and Ananda===
The Jnanamarga leads the sadhaka directly to the Absolute (Brahman). The short cut, the straight way, is always found to be much more strenuous and difficult than the long, roundabout ways. The objective of life is to experience the ultimate ontological truth - Self is Brahman - and the way to pursue it is through vairagya (renunciation) captured by the attributes of knowledge (Sadhana by Jnana-marga) is presented in the thirteenth adhyaya of Bhagavadgita. In other words, epistemology or the Indian theory of knowledge is to be able to live and experience the ontological belief that Brahman is in everything in the universe, and it is practiced through a meticulous lifestyle filled with positivity.<ref name=":6">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 170-171)</ref>
Jnanamarga, according to Advaita, advocates atmopasana (worship of ''self or atman)'' with no distinction between the worshipper (subject) and worshipped (object)''.'' In other forms of Sadhana, the deity (Vishnu, Shiva, Devi etc.,) is realized as an object, something different from the subject''.'' The experience of the ''self'' or Absolute is of the nature of aparoksha-anubhuti, the most direct and intimate, clearest, fullest experience that is boundless. It is the source of infinite joy and happiness, with a fullness of feeling, an ecstatic state described as anandam. This aparoksha-anubhuti superior to any other experience is characterized with anandam and has been identified with mukti or freedom from bondage. Yoga techniques of such as meditation and concentration lead to absorption (samadhi) and results in prajna (intuition). Here the subject raises to the level of object which then is completely and faithfully revealed.<ref>Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 137 - )</ref>
At a certain stage in the course of Sadhana in Jnanamarga, retirement from active life is indeed prescribed and recommended for the Sadhaka. This is known as the stage of vividisa-sannyasa. When the Sadhaka has reached the stage of dhyana or nididhyasana, i.e. when he finds that meditation has become spontaneous with him and he feels pleasure in withdrawing from the external world and retiring within, then, a Sadhaka is advised not to engage himself in any outward action, as it may interfere with the natural and easy flow of his meditation and retard his progress. In Shrimad Bhagavadgita the psychosocial nature of a Yogi in the path of knowledge is described.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>योगी युञ्जीत सततमात्मानं रहसि स्थितः । एकाकी यतचित्तात्मा निराशीरपरिग्रहः ॥ ६-१०॥ (Bhag. Gita. 6.10)</blockquote>One who is established in meditation should steady his mind, concentrate on the inner ''self'' (retiring within himself), remain in a solitary place all alone (away from the external world), controlling his thought and mind, free from desire and sense of possession.
Shrimad Bhagavadgita presents the all positive psychological elements or characteristics that everyone needs to cultivate to be able to learn the knowledge of Brahman. These elements of Jnana include<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अमानित्वमदम्भित्वमहिंसा क्षान्तिरार्जवम् । आचार्योपासनं शौचं स्थैर्यमात्मविनिग्रहः ॥ १३-८॥
Bhagavadgita presents the all positive psychological elements or characteristics that everyone needs to cultivate to be able to learn the knowledge of Brahman. These elements of Jnana include<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अमानित्वमदम्भित्वमहिंसा क्षान्तिरार्जवम् । आचार्योपासनं शौचं स्थैर्यमात्मविनिग्रहः ॥ १३-८॥
इन्द्रियार्थेषु वैराग्यमनहङ्कार एव च । जन्ममृत्युजराव्याधिदुःखदोषानुदर्शनम् ॥ १३-९॥
इन्द्रियार्थेषु वैराग्यमनहङ्कार एव च । जन्ममृत्युजराव्याधिदुःखदोषानुदर्शनम् ॥ १३-९॥
== References ==
== References ==
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[[Category:Vedanta]]