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== ॥ Kinds of Forts ==

== ॥ Kinds of Forts ==

According to Shukraniti, there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलम्) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk.  

According to Shukraniti, there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय​)is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk.  

# परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)

# परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)

It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>

It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>

== Construction of Forts ==

== Construction of Forts ==

Kautilya’s Arthashastra speaks at length about the construction and type of buildings to be raised within forts. It points out that the capital (sthaniya) is to be fortified defensively on all sides either by means of water, mountain, desert or jungle. The first two types of fortification are suited for dense populations and the remaining are good refuge-spots. This sthaniya is a place where treasury or samudhayasthana '' ''is located. Around the fort, three moats are dug out with a space of 1 danda  (equal to 6 feet) in between them. Each of these moats being of 14, 12 and 10 dandas respectively. The depth of these moats corresponds to the width, which is either 3/4^ths or 1/4^ths of the width. The top area is 1/3^rds of width and it is square at the bottom. Rampart walls are built at 4 dandas from the innermost ditch. They should be square at the bottom, oval at the centre and be planted with thorny plants and bushes. Above the rampart walls, parapet walls are to be built in odd or even numbers with intermediate spaces. Passage for flight and exit are also made.Towers are built with moveable staircase or ladder equal to their height. There are intermediate spaces of about 30 dandas between any 2 towers and a broad street is also formed with buildings covered with a roof. In between the tower and the street is the place for indrakosha, w  here 3 archers could be seated.  

Kautilya’s Arthashastra in the Durgavidhanaadhyaya speaks at length about the construction and type of buildings to be raised within forts. It points out that the capital (स्थानीयम्) is to be fortified defensively on all sides either by means of water, mountain, desert or jungle. The first two types of fortification are suited for dense populations and the remaining are good refuge-spots. This sthaniya is a place where treasury or samudhayasthana (समुदयस्थानम् )'' ''is located. Around the fort, three moats are dug out with a space of 1 danda  (equal to 6 feet) in between them. Each of these moats being of 14, 12 and 10 dandas respectively. The depth of these moats corresponds to the width, which is either 3/4^ths or 1/4^ths of the width. The top area is 1/3^rds of width and it is square at the bottom. Rampart walls are built at 4 dandas from the innermost ditch. They should be square at the bottom, oval at the centre and be planted with thorny plants and bushes. Above the rampart walls, parapet walls are to be built in odd or even numbers with intermediate spaces. Passage for flight and exit are also made.Towers are built with moveable staircase or ladder equal to their height. There are intermediate spaces of about 30 dandas between any 2 towers and a broad street is also formed with buildings covered with a roof. In between the tower and the street is the place for indrakosha, w  here 3 archers could be seated.  

=== Yantras in a Fort ===

=== Yantras in a Fort ===

There were a variety of weapons housed inside the fort to attack enemy and defend the fort. There are basically two types of such instruments. One is sthira and the other cala. Dr. Raghavan in his Mechanical Contrivances presents a clear picture of the various [[Yantra Shastra (यन्त्रशास्त्रम्)|yantras]] or weapons used in forts.<ref name=":1">Raghavan, V. (1952) ''Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in  Ancient India''. Bangalore: The Indian Institute of Culture</ref>  

There were a variety of weapons housed inside the fort to attack enemy and defend the fort. There are basically two types of such instruments. One is sthira and the other cala. Dr. Raghavan in his Mechanical Contrivances presents a clear picture of the various [[Yantra Shastra (यन्त्रशास्त्रम्)|yantras]] or weapons used in forts.<ref name=":1">Raghavan, V. (1952) ''Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in  Ancient India''. Bangalore: The Indian Institute of Culture</ref>  

Sthira types are :  Sarvatobhadra - A Sharp edged wheel placed on wall that is rotataed to fling stones ; Jamadagnya -mechanical arrow thrower that is placed behind a wall to shoot arrows through crevices in the wall; Bahumukha – A leather-covered elevation and mount for archers to enable shooting all around; Vishvasaghati – It kills people as it falls and pounds them ; Sanghati - It is made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications; Yanika is a yantra on wheels that discharges batons ; Parjanyaka is a fire-quencher; Bahu is a torture-tool which crushes a person to death. This could be small sized or a overhead column.

Sthira types are :  Sarvatobhadra (सर्वतोभद्रः)- A Sharp edged wheel placed on wall that is rotataed to fling stones ; Jamadagnya (जमदग्नीयः)-mechanical arrow thrower that is placed behind a wall to shoot arrows through crevices in the wall; Bahumukha (बहुमुखः)– A leather-covered elevation and mount for archers to enable shooting all around; Vishvasaghati (विश्वासघाटी)– It kills people as it falls and pounds them ; Sanghati (सङ्घाटी) - It is made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications; Yanika (यानिकः) is a yantra on wheels that discharges batons ; Parjanyaka (पर्जन्यकः) is a fire-quencher; Bahu (बाहुः)is a torture-tool which crushes a person to death. This could be small sized or a overhead column.

The moving ones are called Cala yantra:

The moving ones are called Cala yantra:

Pancalika – It has sharp protruding points and is thrown in the waters of the moat; Devadanda – is a long cylindrical cannon-like tool placed on the parapet walls of the fort; Shukarika - It is  huge,creates obstruction on the path and when suspended on the walls prevents scaling by the enemies. Not only this, it also acts as a buffer when enemies fling stones. Musala; Yashti; Hastivaraka -It is a two or three pronged iron rod which strikes elephants;Hastiparigha- It is a machine which hurls iron rods at elephants to smite or demoralise them;Talavrinta-This creates a tempest kind of effect; Mudgara;Gada;Kuddala;Asphotima – has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones; Udghatima - This is a machine which has iron bars fitted to it and demolishes walls;Utpatima-This uproots and tears up things; Trishula;Cakra and Shataghni.

Pancalika (पाञ्चालिका)– It has sharp protruding points and is thrown in the waters of the moat; Devadanda (देवदण्डः) – is a long cylindrical cannon-like tool placed on the parapet walls of the fort; Sukarika (सूकरिका)- It is  huge,creates obstruction on the path and when suspended on the walls prevents scaling by the enemies. Not only this, it also acts as a buffer when enemies fling stones. Musala; Yashti (यष्टिः); Hastivaraka (हस्तिवारकः) -It is a two or three pronged iron rod which strikes elephants;Hastiparigha (हस्तिपरिघः)- It is a machine which hurls iron rods at elephants to smite or demoralise them;Talavrinta (तालवृन्तः)-This creates a tempest kind of effect; Mudgara (मुद्गरः);Gada (गदा);Kuddala (कुद्दालः);Asphotima (आस्फोतिमः)– has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones; Udghatima (उद्घाटिमः) - This is a machine which has iron bars fitted to it and demolishes walls;Utpatima (उत्पाटिमः)-This uproots and tears up things; Trishula (त्रिशूलः);Cakra (चक्रम्)and Shataghni (शतघ्नी)

=== Buildings within the fort ===

=== Buildings within the fort ===

* Upajapa(उपजापः) - Kautilya always emphasises the need for a procedure which reduces the enemy’s forces. This enhances the surety of victory for the king. A messenger speaks high of the king, his omniscience  and tries to create sense of awe towards him in the enemy.Astrologers, soothsayers, horologists, pauranikas should publicise the king’s  power in associating with Gods. There should be repeated efforts to portray the enemy in poor light.The needs of the people of the enemy should be taken care of. At times of suffering the seeds of dissension should be sown effectively by saying :“ राजानमनुग्रहं याचामहे निरनुग्रहः परत्र गच्छामः।” When people agree to this they should be supplied with abundance of money, food and presents. All necessary help should be provided.

* Upajapa(उपजापः) - Kautilya always emphasises the need for a procedure which reduces the enemy’s forces. This enhances the surety of victory for the king. A messenger speaks high of the king, his omniscience  and tries to create sense of awe towards him in the enemy.Astrologers, soothsayers, horologists, pauranikas should publicise the king’s  power in associating with Gods. There should be repeated efforts to portray the enemy in poor light.The needs of the people of the enemy should be taken care of. At times of suffering the seeds of dissension should be sown effectively by saying :“ राजानमनुग्रहं याचामहे निरनुग्रहः परत्र गच्छामः।” When people agree to this they should be supplied with abundance of money, food and presents. All necessary help should be provided.

* Yohavamanam (योगवामनम्!) '''-''' In this type of siege, role of ascetics and spies are important. A group of people pretending to be ascetics who know everything about the king and his country should, by magical means beguile the king  and win his confidence. In pretending to fulfil the king’s desires, a set of rituals may be done whereby the king is murdered unawares. Spies disguised as merchants, sooth-sayers or snake-Gods should use secret contrivances and indicate defeat of the king with various bad omens. A king who is addicted to hunting is deluded by the sight of beautiful elephants, lured into a remote place and killed or taken away as prisoner. A king who is fond of wealth or women should be beguiled by rich, beautiful widows. He might be poisoned or killed with weapons when he comes to meet the woman at night. These people of the conqueror who come to the enemy fort may leave that as secretly as they come in.

* Yogavamanam (योगवामनम्!) '''-''' In this type of siege, role of ascetics and spies are important. A group of people pretending to be ascetics who know everything about the king and his country should, by magical means beguile the king  and win his confidence. In pretending to fulfil the king’s desires, a set of rituals may be done whereby the king is murdered unawares. Spies disguised as merchants, sooth-sayers or snake-Gods should use secret contrivances and indicate defeat of the king with various bad omens. A king who is addicted to hunting is deluded by the sight of beautiful elephants, lured into a remote place and killed or taken away as prisoner. A king who is fond of wealth or women should be beguiled by rich, beautiful widows. He might be poisoned or killed with weapons when he comes to meet the woman at night. These people of the conqueror who come to the enemy fort may leave that as secretly as they come in.

Apasarpapranidhi (अपसर्पणप्रणिधिः)- The work of spies is crucial in this type of siege. After making peace with the enemy, the conqueror may dismiss some of his own confidential ministers and send with him a group of spies, traitors, bold thieves and wild tribes who have no distinction between a friend and a foe. They secure the goodwill of the enemy and put persons of the boundary guard and other chiefs to death calling them traitors. The conqueror may strike a proposal with the enemy to put down a common enemy and in the tumult, kill enemy. Spies disguised as hunters sell flesh to the gate sentinels and make friendship. They inform the enemy of the arrival of thieves on certain occasions and then when they become reliable, they strike the enemy with all their military might. Some spies aim at the enemy king’s life.

Paryupasanakarma (पर्युपासनकर्म​) - During actual siege operations, the empty moats are to be filled with water, vitiate the water in the moats that are filled, fill the deep ditches with soil. Then, the outer walls of the parapet are brought down with the help of warriors, machines and explosives. Meanwhile, the cavalry troops shall force their way through the various gateways. If all these fail, then, finally fire is used strongly says that fire is to be used only in extreme crisis as it destroys people, cattle, grains and offends Gods.

* Apasarpapranidhi (अपसर्पणप्रणिधिः)- The work of spies is crucial in this type of siege. After making peace with the enemy, the conqueror may dismiss some of his own confidential ministers and send with him a group of spies, traitors, bold thieves and wild tribes who have no distinction between a friend and a foe. They secure the goodwill of the enemy and put persons of the boundary guard and other chiefs to death calling them traitors. The conqueror may strike a proposal with the enemy to put down a common enemy and in the tumult, kill enemy. Spies disguised as hunters sell flesh to the gate sentinels and make friendship. They inform the enemy of the arrival of thieves on certain occasions and then when they become reliable, they strike the enemy with all their military might. Some spies aim at the enemy king’s life.

Avamarda (अवमर्दः ) - Storming of the Fort is taken up when the conqueror is in a good state whereas his enemy is diseased, with inefficient officers, with unfinished forts, no or inimical friends. Another opportune moment for the assault is when fire breaks out. Also, one can befriend the enemy, observe the weak points and strike him. If this attempt fails, he may feign defeat and set fire to his own camp. Now the enemy is made to believe that he is retreating made to throw open his gates. At this juncture, the fort is stormed. Elephants especially trained to demolish the forts were also widely used.

* Paryupasanakarma (पर्युपासनकर्म​) - During actual siege operations, the empty moats are to be filled with water, vitiate the water in the moats that are filled, fill the deep ditches with soil. Then, the outer walls of the parapet are brought down with the help of warriors, machines and explosives. Meanwhile, the cavalry troops shall force their way through the various gateways. If all these fail, then, finally fire is used strongly says that fire is to be used only in extreme crisis as it destroys people, cattle, grains and offends Gods.

Once the fort is captured by the conqueror employing such strategies, the king should make all necessary efforts to bring back peace. He should take care of the weak and injured. He has to replace the enemy’s troops with his own troops. He should make  entry into the fort with all the paraphernalia showcasing his victory.

Once the fort is captured by the conqueror employing such strategies, the king should make all necessary efforts to bring back peace. He should take care of the weak and injured. He has to replace the enemy’s troops with his own troops. He should make  entry into the fort with all the paraphernalia showcasing his victory.