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==== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ====

==== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ====

Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with the advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient scientists (rshis) had is knowledge.

Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with the advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient scientists (rshis) had is knowledge.

* [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|'''Rasashastra''']]: The development of Rasashastra took place with regards to the processing and the use of mercury, metals, minerals and many of their compounds for alchemical as well as therapeutic purposes. Many new methods/procedures/techniques for the treatment of mercury, metals/minerals were developed to convert these into pharmaceutically most suitable forms/compounds which are non-toxic, highly absorbable and most effective in therapeutics. Alchemical experiments (Lohavedha) were initially explored to remove poverty from the world by the monk of Buddhist order, Nagarjuna and his followers.<ref>Joshi, Damodar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mercurial and Metallic Compunds: Page 256)</ref>

* [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|'''Rasashastra''']]: The development of Rasashastra took place with regards to the processing and the use of heavy metals such as mercury, metals, minerals and many of their compounds for alchemical as well as therapeutic purposes. Many new methods/procedures/techniques for the treatment of mercury, metals/minerals were developed to convert these into pharmaceutically most suitable forms/compounds which are non-toxic, highly absorbable and most effective in therapeutics. Alchemical experiments (Lohavedha) were initially explored to remove poverty from the world by the monk of Buddhist order, Nagarjuna and his followers.<ref>Joshi, Damodar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mercurial and Metallic Compunds: Page 256)</ref>

* '''Therapeutic Potential''': Although alchemic purposes of minerals were popular in earlier days, as Ayurveda developed utility of metals and minerals in therapeutics became prominent as seen in Charaka and Sushruta samhitas. Acharya Charaka mentioned three Maharasas (Makshika, Shilajatu and Sasyaka) and all eight Uparasas (Kankushta)<ref>''Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda Dipika Commentary by Chakrapanidutta.'' Varanasi: Chaukhambha Surbharati Prakashan (2000). (Chikitsa Sthana 7/111 pp 456).</ref> in his classic text. Interestingly, information on Sadharana rasas was not found in the classic. In addition to these minerals; information on certain salts (lavana dravya), alkaline substances (ksara dravyas) and calcium containing material (jantava dravya) etc. are also found described.<ref>Chandrashekhar. J., et. al., ''[https://www.academia.edu/38424308/Therapeutic_Potentials_of_Minerals_in_Ancient_India_A_Review_through_Charaka_Samhita Therapeutic Potentials of Minerals in Ancient India : A Review through Charaka Samhita.]'' J Res Edu Indian Med, Jan - Mar 2014; Vol. XX (1): 9-20</ref>

* '''Chemical Apparatus''': A large number of equipment, crucibles, furnaces etc., for processing of minerals and metals are described (Rasarnava).  Rasaratnasamucchya contains description of several kinds of crucibles made of fireclay (vahnimrttika), funaces, implements and equipment to be used in the alchemical laboratory.

* '''Chemical Apparatus''': A large number of equipment, crucibles, furnaces etc., for processing of minerals and metals are described (Rasarnava).  Rasaratnasamucchya contains description of several kinds of crucibles made of fireclay (vahnimrttika), funaces, implements and equipment to be used in the alchemical laboratory.

* '''Flame tests''': Specific colors of flames are due to specific salts of copper, tin, lead (Rasarnava 49). This test is also practiced in present day as preliminary test to identify the compounds.

* '''Flame tests''': Specific colors of flames are due to specific salts of copper, tin, lead (Rasarnava 49). This test is also practiced in present day as preliminary test to identify the chemical compounds.

* '''Extraction of Copper''': Procedures were described for making copper metal from makshika (7.12-13) vimala (7.20-21) sasyaka (7.41-44) in Rasarnava text. While makshika and vimala are identified as pyrites (Copper pyrite ores) sasyaka is copper sulphate. All three products yielded Tamra or copper. Copper was discovered long before the Daltonian chemistry came into existence.

* '''Extraction of Copper''': Procedures were described for making copper metal from makshika (7.12-13) vimala (7.20-21) sasyaka (7.41-44) in Rasarnava text. While makshika and vimala are identified as pyrites (Copper pyrite ores) sasyaka is copper sulphate. All three products yielded Tamra or copper. Copper was discovered long before the Daltonian chemistry came into existence.

* '''Corrosion''': Six metals were arranged in the increasing order of corrosion (Rasarnava 7.89-90) - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. Sulphur was highly reactive with most of the metals.<ref name=":2" />

* '''Corrosion''': Six metals were arranged in the increasing order of corrosion (Rasarnava 7.89-90) - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. Sulphur was highly reactive with most of the metals.<ref name=":2" />

* '''Chemical Processes''': Reduction-Oxidation in mineral-metal-metaloxide systems, conversion to sulphides were described in Rasaratnasamucchaya text. For preparation of pharmaceutical grade products for human consumption, many intermediary operations were described: purification of the mineral, metallic extraction (satvapaatana), liquefaction, distillation, incineration etc were performed.

* '''Chemical Processes''': Reduction-Oxidation in mineral-metal-metaloxide systems, conversion to sulphides were described in Rasaratnasamucchaya text. For preparation of pharmaceutical grade products for human consumption, many intermediary operations were described: purification of the mineral, metallic extraction (satvapaatana), liquefaction, distillation, incineration etc were performed.

* '''Preparation of Alloys''': Mishra-loha or mixed metals were prepared. Alloys of five metals (Pancha-loha) which is used till date to prepare auspicious idols and eight metals (ashtadhatu) were developed.

* '''Preparation of Alloys''': Mishra-loha or mixed metals were prepared. Alloys of five metals (Pancha-loha) which is used till date to prepare auspicious idols and eight metals (ashtadhatu) were developed.

* '''Zinc Technology''': The Zawar zinc technology produced high-zinc (28%) brass alloy not produced anywhere else in the rest of the world. The zinc retorts were similar to those described in Rasaratnasamucchyaa text.

* '''Zinc Technology''': The Zawar zinc technology produced high-zinc (28%) brass alloy not produced anywhere else in the rest of the world. It is the earliest firm evidence for production of metallic zinc in the world. The zinc retorts found in Zawar were similar to those described in Rasaratnasamucchyaa and by Nagarjuna in his Rasaratnakara. The text gives details of the distillation process of zinc by tiryakpatanayantra (distillation by descending) which is totally an ingenious method where the zinc vapor formed after smelting zinc ore (in specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces) could be drastically cooled down to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal.<ref name=":4">Srinivasan, Sharada and Ranganathan, Srinivasa. (2013) ''[http://eprints.nias.res.in/374/1/B8-2013%20Minerals%20and%20Metals%20Heritage%20of%20India.pdf Minerals and Metals Heritage of India.]'' Bangalore:National Institute of Advanced Studies.</ref>

* Bidri Alloy: The alloy produced in the South Indian town of Bidar, contained Zinc (76-98%), Copper (2-10%), at times Lead (1-8%), tin (1-5%) and trace of Iron. Darkening of the Bidriware made was done by applying a paste of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride and copper sulphate.  

* '''Bidri Alloy''': The alloy produced in the South Indian town of Bidar, contained Zinc (76-98%), Copper (2-10%), at times Lead (1-8%), tin (1-5%) and trace of Iron. Darkening of the Bidriware made was done by applying a paste of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride and copper sulphate. Several impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels and huqqa bases were made of bidri ware with patterns influenced by the fine geometric and floral patterns and inlayed with gold and silver metals.  

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Shastras]]

[[Category:Shastras]]

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