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== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

Chemistry in ancient India, had its origin revealed through the great works of our ancient rishis can be attributed to three major areas<ref name=":1" />

Chemistry in ancient India, had its origin revealed through the great works of our ancient rishis can be attributed to three major areas<ref name=":1" />

* intellectual speculation about the nature and composition of matter

* intellectual speculation about the nature and composition of matter (Alchemy)

* development of practical arts to meet the demand for the necessities of life

* development of practical arts to meet the demand for the necessities of life (Dyes, Fermentation)

* self preservation and welfare measures of the society

* self preservation and welfare measures of the society (Ayurvedic preparation)

Ancient India's contribution to science and technology include principles of chemistry which did not remain abstract but found expression in practical activities like fermentation processes, distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes and pigments and extraction of sugar, extraction of oil from oilseeds, and metallurgy which has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the earliest ages. Archaeologists' findings of the Indus valley civilization showed a well developed urban system with public baths, streets, granaries, temples, houses with baked bricks, mass production of pottery and even a script of their own which depicted the story of early chemistry.<ref name=":0">Purwar, Chhavi. ''[https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/7278.pdf Significant Contribution of Chemistry in Ancient Indian Science and Technology.]'' International Journal of Development Research Vol. 06, Issue, 12, pp.10784-10788, December, 2016</ref>  

Ancient India's contribution to science and technology include principles of chemistry which did not remain abstract but found expression in practical activities like fermentation processes, distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes and pigments and extraction of sugar, extraction of oil from oilseeds, and metallurgy which has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the earliest ages. Archaeologists' findings of the Indus valley civilization showed a well developed urban system with public baths, streets, granaries, temples, houses with baked bricks, mass production of pottery and even a script of their own which depicted the story of early chemistry.<ref name=":0">Purwar, Chhavi. ''[https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/7278.pdf Significant Contribution of Chemistry in Ancient Indian Science and Technology.]'' International Journal of Development Research Vol. 06, Issue, 12, pp.10784-10788, December, 2016</ref>  

== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==

== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==

The industries which sustained on chemical process may be classified broadly under the following headings.<ref>Danino. Michel, [https://www.academia.edu/23305766/Technology_in_Ancient_India_-_Michel_Danino Technology in Ancient India]</ref>

The industries which sustained on chemical process may be classified broadly under the following headings.<ref>Danino. Michel, [https://www.academia.edu/23305766/Technology_in_Ancient_India_-_Michel_Danino Technology in Ancient India]</ref>

# Ayurvedic Preparations  

# Ayurvedic Preparations including mercurial compounds are discussed in [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] and [[Rasayana (रसायनम्)|Rasayana]].

# Pottery: Involves prolonged heating, fusion, evaporation, and treatment of minerals and pigments.

# Pottery: Involves prolonged heating, fusion, evaporation, and treatment of minerals and pigments.

# Metal Works: Gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron; alloys included bronze, and brass were prepared.

# [[Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्)]] or the study of Minerals, broadly involves mining of Metal Ores such as those of Gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron and preparation of alloys such as bronze, and brass.

# Building materials: Mortar and Cement using limestone, gypsum and their modified forms

# Building materials: Mortar and Cement using limestone, gypsum and their modified forms

# Fermentation Technology

# Fermentation Technology

# Extraction of Oils:  Perfumes for cosmetics and consumption

# Extraction of Oils:  Perfumes for cosmetics and consumption

# Dyeing: Numerous dyes from vegetable and mineral sources, use of mordants for textiles, craft paints  

# Dyeing: Numerous dyes from vegetable and mineral sources, use of mordants for textiles, craft paints  

# Glass  

# Glass  

=== Pottery - Preparation and Painting ===

=== Origin of Paints ===

Pottery and pottery-painting were practised in India ever since the dawn of civilisation. People in very ancient settlements were well-acquainted with the art of making potteries of burnt clay and painting various designs on them. A large variety of ochres, haematites, pigments and organic colours were used by potters for painting the pots. This art of using pigments for beautification of pottery led to the development of paint technology in India.

Pottery and pottery-painting were practised in India ever since the dawn of civilisation. In archaeological parlance, pottery is regarded as index to culture; an alphabet to history. Generally it is studied typologically, a correlation with others, rather than extensive technological anaysis. However technological details such as - composition of clay, tempering agents, nature and components of the slips or glaze, nature of firing, porosity test and different chemical analyses - stand witness to not only the technological advancement of that culture but throws light on social, cultural, religious, economic, political aspects of that culture. Pottery both of fine and coarse types found in excavation sites of the Indian sub-continent are of many varieties, such as Red Ware, Buff Ware, Gray Ware, Black and Red Ware etc., broadly classified based on their colours.

 

People in very ancient settlements were well-acquainted with the art of making potteries of burnt clay and painting various designs on them. A large variety of ochres, haematites, pigments and organic colours were used by potters for painting the pots. This art of using pigments for beautification of pottery led to the development of paint technology in India.

Archaeological evidences of pre-historic settlements unearthed in various parts of India have revealed a large number of earthen ware items implying that the inhabitants of these early settlements were well-acquainted with the techniques related to pottery making, dye preparation and painting. It is interesting to note that regarding the pre-historic cultures, archaeologists have given a broad classification as Buff-ware culture and Red-ware culture based on the colours of the potteries distinctively found in those settlements. Potters' wheel was the characteristic implement of the Indus valley civilization.<ref name=":12">Krishnamurthy. Radha, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Dyes, Mordants and Pigments: Pages 309 - 312)</ref>

Archaeological evidences of pre-historic settlements unearthed in various parts of India have revealed a large number of earthen ware items implying that the inhabitants of these early settlements were well-acquainted with the techniques related to pottery making, dye preparation and painting. It is interesting to note that regarding the pre-historic cultures, archaeologists have given a broad classification as Buff-ware culture and Red-ware culture based on the colours of the potteries distinctively found in those settlements. Potters' wheel was the characteristic implement of the Indus valley civilization.<ref name=":12">Krishnamurthy. Radha, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Dyes, Mordants and Pigments: Pages 309 - 312)</ref>

Black and chocolate shades - manganiferous hematite was used (in combination if manganese is more produces pure back color, if iron preponderates it gives a chocolate color)

Black and chocolate shades - manganiferous hematite was used (in combination if manganese is more produces pure back color, if iron preponderates it gives a chocolate color)

The technique of painting pots before firing and also painting designs on them after firing was in vogue. Mostly organic colours were used to paint the surfaces. For white pigment, lime, limestone, chalk and rice powder were used. To prepare black pigment, burnt coconut shell powder, soot, powdered charcoal, black iron oxide etc. were found to be used in some other settlements.  

The technique of painting pots before firing and also painting designs on them after firing was in vogue. Mostly organic colours were used to paint the surfaces. For white pigment, lime, limestone, chalk and rice powder were used. To prepare black pigment, burnt coconut shell powder, soot, powdered charcoal, black iron oxide etc. were found to be used in some other settlements.<ref name=":12" />

During Vedic times and later on, ritual pots were painted with floral and geometrical designs in red, yellow blue and green colours. The solvent used for these pigments was plain water.

During Vedic times and later on, ritual pots were painted with floral and geometrical designs in red, yellow blue and green colours. The solvent used for these pigments was plain water.

It is evident that methods like filtration, decantation, making pastes by rubbing on granite with little water, boiling with ingredients like calcium, catechu, soda etc, plant identification and collection of barks and leaves, and fermentation using rice starch were the adopted chemical processing techniques in preparation of pigments.<ref name=":12" />

It is evident that methods like filtration, decantation, making pastes by rubbing on granite with little water, boiling with ingredients like calcium, catechu, soda etc, plant identification and collection of barks and leaves, and fermentation using rice starch were the adopted chemical processing techniques in preparation of pigments.<ref name=":12" />

=== Tinted Glass ===

==== Tinted Glass ====

Manufacture of glass and coloured glass is well documented in ancient literature such as Ramayana (2.90.27) (and other Jain texts), even though no glass objects have been recovered from Indus valley areas. Kautilya in his Arthashastra while laying down rules for the Superintendent of the treasury talks about the identification of various kinds of gems and precious stones and mentions a few times about glass; in the context of testing gems to place them in jewelry, in trade and tax payments, robbery and fines.<ref>Krishnamurthy. Radha, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Dyes, Mordants and Pigments: Pages 312)</ref>

Manufacture of glass and coloured glass is well documented in ancient literature such as Ramayana (2.90.27) (and other Buddhist texts), even though no glass objects have been recovered from Indus valley areas. Kautilya in his Arthashastra while laying down rules for the Superintendent of the treasury talks about the identification of various kinds of gems and precious stones and mentions a few times about glass; in the context of testing gems to place them in jewelry, in trade and tax payments, robbery and fines.<ref>Krishnamurthy. Radha, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Dyes, Mordants and Pigments: Page 312)</ref>

* शेषाः काच-मणयः ।। ०२.११.३६ ।। (Arth. Shas. 2.11.36)<ref>Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Adhikarana 2 Adhyaya 11])</ref> rest are the glass gems.  

* शेषाः काच-मणयः ।। ०२.११.३६ ।। (Arth. Shas. 2.11.36)<ref>Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Adhikarana 2 Adhyaya 11])</ref> rest are the glass gems.  

* क्षेपणः काच-अर्पण-आदीनि ।। ०२.१३.३८ ।। (Arth. Shas. 2.13.38)<ref>Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Adhikarana 2 Adhyaya 13])</ref> Kshepana, guna, and kshudra ate three kinds of ornamental work. Setting jewels (kácha, glass bead) in gold is termed kshepana.<ref>Shamasastry. R, ''Kautilya's Arthashastra with English Translation'' (Page 120)</ref>

* क्षेपणः काच-अर्पण-आदीनि ।। ०२.१३.३८ ।। (Arth. Shas. 2.13.38)<ref>Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Adhikarana 2 Adhyaya 13])</ref> Kshepana, guna, and kshudra ate three kinds of ornamental work. Setting jewels (kácha, glass bead) in gold is termed kshepana.<ref>Shamasastry. R, ''Kautilya's Arthashastra with English Translation'' (Page 120)</ref>

Archaeological evidences support the use of glass beads, bangles, jars, tiles etc. made from 6th or 5th century' B.C. onwards. Most of the glass objects were coloured. Glass manufacture practiced as an indigenous industry in ancient India is seen in excavations particularly in the south (Arikamedu, Uraiyur). Along with this, the technique of colouring glass also developed. The glass specimens show that the glass makers of ancient India were highly competent in giving different colours and shades to glass objects.  

Archaeological evidences support the use of glass beads, bangles, jars, tiles etc. made from 6th or 5th century' B.C. onwards. Most of the glass objects were coloured. Glass manufacture practiced as an indigenous industry in ancient India is seen in excavations particularly in the south (Arikamedu, Uraiyur). Along with this, the technique of colouring glass also developed. The glass specimens show that the glass makers of ancient India were highly competent in giving different colours and shades to glass objects.  

Chemical analysis revealed, just like in the case of pottery, that colouring agents were obtained from the metallic ores. Different chemicals added to them finally led to attribute different shades of colours and glazes to the glass objects. Coloured glass was prepared by mixing silicates of soda, lime and appropriate metallic oxides (Jaggi, I p.203). Copper oxide, iron oxide, manganese oxides were generally used to give colours to the glass articles as for pottery. A special type of glass beads of 350 A.D. to 750 A.D. found at Ahicchatra is of gold foil glass. Layers of gold foils were poured in between two glass layers. All these prove that craftsmen in ancient India were highly skillful in the sophisticated technique of using metallic ores and chemicals as pigments in colouring very high temperature melting media like glass.

Chemical analysis revealed, just like in the case of pottery, that colouring agents were obtained from the metallic ores. Different chemicals added to them finally led to attribute different shades of colours and glazes to the glass objects. Coloured glass was prepared by mixing silicates of soda, lime and appropriate metallic oxides<ref>Jaggi, O.P. (1977) ''Science and Technology in Ancient India, New Delhi. Vol I'', p.203</ref>. Copper oxide, iron oxide, manganese oxides were generally used to give colours to the glass articles as for pottery. A special type of glass beads of 350 A.D. to 750 A.D. found at Ahicchatra is of gold foil glass. Layers of gold foils were poured in between two glass layers. All these prove that craftsmen in ancient India were highly skillful in the sophisticated technique of using metallic ores and chemicals as pigments in colouring very high temperature melting media like glass.

 

 

 

Alchemical experiments (Lohavedha) were initially explored to remove poverty from the world by the monk of Buddhist order, Nagarjuna and his followers.

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Shastras]]

[[Category:Shastras]]

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