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An analysis of the work of several religious and other scholars provides a basis to conclude that the yoga way of life significantly impacts leadership traits and improves EI and EC. Swami Vivekananda averred that the highest man is calm, silent and unknown<ref>Swami Vivekananda. (2006). Teachings of Swami Vivekananda. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.</ref>. The highest person as a leader is calm in order to understand situations, and to think and select the best option for his/her followers’ development. (S)he is silent in order to listen to himself/herself and to his/her subordinates, to control his/her prejudices and conditioning, and to meet others’ hearts. Finally, the leader chooses to remain unknown in order to be free from possible egotistic benefits. According to Sri Aurobindo (in<ref name=":6" />), ‘The more complete the calm, the mightier the yogic power, the greater the force in action’ (p 201).  

An analysis of the work of several religious and other scholars provides a basis to conclude that the yoga way of life significantly impacts leadership traits and improves EI and EC. Swami Vivekananda averred that the highest man is calm, silent and unknown<ref>Swami Vivekananda. (2006). Teachings of Swami Vivekananda. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.</ref>. The highest person as a leader is calm in order to understand situations, and to think and select the best option for his/her followers’ development. (S)he is silent in order to listen to himself/herself and to his/her subordinates, to control his/her prejudices and conditioning, and to meet others’ hearts. Finally, the leader chooses to remain unknown in order to be free from possible egotistic benefits. According to Sri Aurobindo (in<ref name=":6" />), ‘The more complete the calm, the mightier the yogic power, the greater the force in action’ (p 201).  

According to Swami Tapasyananda<ref>Swami Tapasyananda. (1984). Srimad Bhagvad Gita e Scripture of mankind. Ramkrishna Vedant Centre</ref> (1984), man is an integrated whole, his mind being a complex of feeling (emotions), will and intellect. In the four spiritual disciplines (i.e. the four types of yoga - Raja, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana), one of these dominates, while the others, though subordinate, complete the discipline. This is the integrated yoga of the Bhagavad Gita. Swami Vivekananda too, in his interpretation of Vedanta, gives an equal place to all the four yogas<ref name=":1" />.  

According to Swami Tapasyananda<ref name=":11">Swami Tapasyananda. (1984). Srimad Bhagvad Gita e Scripture of mankind. Ramkrishna Vedant Centre</ref> (1984), man is an integrated whole, his mind being a complex of feeling (emotions), will and intellect. In the four spiritual disciplines (i.e. the four types of yoga - Raja, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana), one of these dominates, while the others, though subordinate, complete the discipline. This is the integrated yoga of the Bhagavad Gita. Swami Vivekananda too, in his interpretation of Vedanta, gives an equal place to all the four yogas<ref name=":1" />.  

The role of yoga in the development of impersonality or the spiritual personality has been well explained by Sri Aurobindo<ref name=":8">Sri Aurobindo. (1942). Essays on the Gita, Vol. 13. Calcutta: Arya Publishing House.</ref> (1942) in his classic work, Essays on the Gita. According to Sri Aurobindo, yoga and knowledge are the two wings of the soul’s ascent. He states, ‘By yoga is meant union through divine works done without desire, with equality of soul to all things and all men, as a sacrifice to the Supreme, while knowledge is that on which this desirelessness, this equality, this power of sacrifices is founded’ (p 191).

The role of yoga in the development of impersonality or the spiritual personality has been well explained by Sri Aurobindo<ref name=":8">Sri Aurobindo. (1942). Essays on the Gita, Vol. 13. Calcutta: Arya Publishing House.</ref> (1942) in his classic work, Essays on the Gita. According to Sri Aurobindo, yoga and knowledge are the two wings of the soul’s ascent. He states, ‘By yoga is meant union through divine works done without desire, with equality of soul to all things and all men, as a sacrifice to the Supreme, while knowledge is that on which this desirelessness, this equality, this power of sacrifices is founded’ (p 191).

Most of the work available on the subject of the impact of yoga on work life/management centers around the impact of transcendental meditation (TM) on various aspects of management. Transcendental meditation is the skill of effortlessly minimizing mental activity so that the body settles into a state of rest deeper than deep sleep while the mind becomes clear and alert (Orme-Johnson, Zimmerman, & Hawkins, 1992<ref name=":10">Orme-Johnson, D. W., Zimmerman, E., & Hawkins, M. (1992). Maharishi’s vedic psychology: The science of the cosmic psyche. In H. S. R. Kao, & Y. H. Poortinga (Eds.), Asian perspectives on psychology (pp. 282).</ref>). A review of over 500 experimental studies conducted in over 200 Universities in 33 countries<ref name=":10" /> revealed that TM helps expand consciousness, decrease oxygen intake and stress level, increase basal skin resistance and coherence in the electro encephalo gram (EEG) and virtually suspends breathing up to 1 minute.  

Most of the work available on the subject of the impact of yoga on work life/management centers around the impact of transcendental meditation (TM) on various aspects of management. Transcendental meditation is the skill of effortlessly minimizing mental activity so that the body settles into a state of rest deeper than deep sleep while the mind becomes clear and alert (Orme-Johnson, Zimmerman, & Hawkins, 1992<ref name=":10">Orme-Johnson, D. W., Zimmerman, E., & Hawkins, M. (1992). Maharishi’s vedic psychology: The science of the cosmic psyche. In H. S. R. Kao, & Y. H. Poortinga (Eds.), Asian perspectives on psychology (pp. 282).</ref>). A review of over 500 experimental studies conducted in over 200 Universities in 33 countries<ref name=":10" /> revealed that TM helps expand consciousness, decrease oxygen intake and stress level, increase basal skin resistance and coherence in the electro encephalo gram (EEG) and virtually suspends breathing up to 1 minute.  

At the University of Texas, Orme-Johnson et al. (1992)<ref name=":10" /> showed that mediators display a greater physiological equilibrium than non-meditators. They also showed that meditators maintain this equilibrium under stress more effectively than non-meditators. Frew (1974)<ref>Frew, D. (1974). Transcendental meditation and productivity. Academy of Management Journal, 17(2), 362.</ref> completed a study that concludes that TM increases individual productivity. Frew found that meditators show increased job satisfaction, a decreased desire to change jobs, better performance, and better relationships with supervisors and co-workers.  

At the University of Texas, Orme-Johnson et al. (1992)<ref name=":10" /> showed that meditators display a greater physiological equilibrium than non-meditators. They also showed that meditators maintain this equilibrium under stress more effectively than non-meditators. Frew (1974)<ref>Frew, D. (1974). Transcendental meditation and productivity. Academy of Management Journal, 17(2), 362.</ref> completed a study that concludes that TM increases individual productivity. Frew found that meditators show increased job satisfaction, a decreased desire to change jobs, better performance, and better relationships with supervisors and co-workers.  

Findings on the TM technique relevant to organisational performance include improved cognitive performance (see Orme-Johnson, Alexander, & Hawkins, 2005 for a recent summary of studies<ref>Orme-Johnson, D. W., Alexander, C. N., & Hawkins, M. A. (2005). Critique of the national research council’s report on meditation. (Special issue). Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Applications of Maharishi Vedic Science, 17(1), 383e414.</ref>), increased self-esteem and higher levels of self-actualization and development (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991), and more effective mana- gerial performance (Torbert, 1987). Previous case studies suggest that large proportions of organisation members practising the TM technique contribute to improvements in organisational performance (Schmidt-Wilk, Alexander, & Swanson, 1996).  

Findings on the TM technique relevant to organisational performance include improved cognitive performance (see Orme-Johnson, Alexander, & Hawkins, 2005 for a recent summary of studies<ref>Orme-Johnson, D. W., Alexander, C. N., & Hawkins, M. A. (2005). Critique of the national research council’s report on meditation. (Special issue). Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Applications of Maharishi Vedic Science, 17(1), 383e414.</ref>), increased self-esteem and higher levels of self-actualization and development (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991<ref>Alexander, C. N., Rainforth, M. V., & Gelderloos, P. (1991). Transcendental meditation, self-actualization and psychological health: A conceptual overview and statistical meta-analysis. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6(5), 189e247.</ref>), and more effective managerial performance (Torbert, 1987<ref>Torbert, W. R. (1987). Managing the corporate dream: Restructuring for long term success. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.</ref>). Previous case studies suggest that large proportions of organisation members practising the TM technique contribute to improvements in organisational performance (Schmidt-Wilk, Alexander, & Swanson, 1996<ref>Schmidt-Wilk, J., Alexander, C. N., & Swanson, G. C. (1996). Developing consciousness in organizations: The transcendental meditation program in business. Journal of Business and Psychology, 10(4), 429e444.</ref>).  

Parde and Naidu (1992) report empirical evidence to show that people with a strong orientation to working sincerely without being preoccupied with the outcome experience less work-related stress. Misra (1989) found that effort orientation rather than concern for outcome leads to greater intrinsic satisfaction. Chakraborty (1987, 1993) provides experimental evidence that practising yoga, meditating, controlling breathing and stilling the turbulent mind can enable workers and managers to purify their mind and make it spiritual, expand their self to include others around them, and help them grow and transform them- selves without expecting anything in return.  

Parde and Naidu (1992)<ref>Parde, N., & Naidu, R. K. (1992). Anasakti and health: A study of non-attachment. Psychology and Developing Societies, 4(1), 89e104.</ref> report empirical evidence to show that people with a strong orientation to working sincerely without being preoccupied with the outcome experience less work-related stress. Misra (1989)<ref>Misra, G. (1989). Intrinsic motivation extrinsic reward and performance. Indian Education Review, 24(17), 25.</ref> found that effort orientation rather than concern for outcome leads to greater intrinsic satisfaction. Chakraborty (1987, 1993)<ref>Chakraborty, S. K. (1987). Managerial effectiveness and quality of work life: Indian insights. New Delhi: McGraw Hill.</ref><ref>Chakraborty, S. K. (1993). Managerial transformation by values:A corporate pilgrimage. New Delhi: Sage</ref> provides experimental evidence that practicing yoga, meditating, controlling breathing and stilling the turbulent mind can enable workers and managers to purify their mind and make it spiritual, expand their self to include others around them, and help them grow and transform them- selves without expecting anything in return.  

One of the issues that researchers could confront while using a spiritual and philosophical concept such as yoga to address issues on a materialistic plane is whether yoga should be used for the utilitarian purpose of enhancing  

One of the issues that researchers could confront while using a spiritual and philosophical concept such as yoga to address issues on a materialistic plane is whether yoga should be used for the utilitarian purpose of enhancing a company’s performance, and whether a path of individual realizational quest (mukti) can be used to enhance managerial performance. When yoga is interpreted as ‘a way to unite with universal consciousness’ (yujjyate anena iti yogah), it emphasizes the individual realizational quest aspect of yoga. However, there are other definitions of yoga which point to the possibility of using it as a method of improving one’s quality of living and responses to events<ref name=":1" />.

a company’s performance, and whether a path of individual realisational quest (mukti) can be used to enhance mana- gerial performance. When yoga is interpreted as ‘a way to unite with universal consciousness’ (yujjyate anena iti yogah), it emphasises the individual realisational quest aspect of yoga. However, there are other definitions of yoga which point to the possibility of using it as a method of improving one’s quality of living and responses to events.  

Yoga is defined as ‘skill in action’ (yogah karmasu kau- salam) in the Bhagavad Gita (Swami Tapasyananda, 1984<ref name=":11" />, Chapter 2, Shloka 50) which discusses yoga explicitly, and further states that one must strive for the state of yoga where ‘One (is) endowed with unperturbed evenness of mind (that) abandons the effects of both good and bad actions’ even in this world. The original shloka is as follows: <blockquote>बुद्धियुक्तो जहातीह उभे सुकृतदुष्कृते।</blockquote><blockquote>तस्माद्योगाय युज्यस्व योगः कर्मसु कौशलम्।।2.50।।</blockquote><blockquote>Buddhiyukto jahati’ha ubhe sukrta-duskrte </blockquote><blockquote>Tasmad yogaya yujyasva yogah karmasu kausalam. 2.50</blockquote>This shloka clearly suggests that yoga can be applied to day-to-day living, which seems largely utilitarian. Sri Aurobindo<ref name=":6" />, stating the power of yoga, reiterates that right knowledge becomes the infallible source of right action (yohgah karmasu kaushalam) (p 201). To quote Sri Aurobindo fully, ‘The more complete the calm, the mightier the Yogic power, the greater the force in action. In this calm the right knowledge comes. The activity of the mind must cease, the chitta be purified, a silence falls upon the restlessness of prakriti; then in that calm, in that voiceless stillness, illumination comes upon the mind, error begins to fade away.clarity establishes itself in the higher stratum of the consciousness, compelling peace and joy in the lower. Right knowledge becomes the infallible source of right action. Yohgah karmasu kaushalam.’ (p 201).  

In the light of the many definitions and descriptions of yoga, referring to the spiritual and the secular quest, we submit that the realisational vs utilitarian divide is artificial. A truly realisational objective has to be all- comprehensive.

 

 

 

In the light of the many definitions and descriptions of yoga, referring to the spiritual and the secular quest, we submit that the realisational vs utilitarian divide is artifi- cial. A truly realisational objective has to be all- comprehensive. It is in this context that we have chosen to do empirical research on this subject.

==References==

==References==