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Line 1: − Krshi Vijnana (Samskrit: कृषिविज्ञानम्) refers to the science of agriculture. Cultivation involves a long process starting from the preparation of land, to sowing of crops under favourable climate conditions, followed by crop protection and harvesting at the appropriate time. Ancient farmers planned their field activities involving meticulous coordination of climatic conditions with knowledge of soil and crop combinations for good yields. It involved watching the skies for cloud formation, prediction of rainfall and soil preparation thereafter selecting the appropriate crop to be sown (based on panchanga) followed by seed sowing and appropriate steps to manure, pollinate and protect the yield from pests. Thus it cannot be more emphasised that a Krshaka (farmer) was highly knowledgeable in the vijnana (scientific) aspects of cultivation, such as astronomy, soil sciences, meteorology, hydrology and irrigation techniques, genetics (rotation of crops and seed selection), ecology, botany, plant protection, mechanics (for making implements) and animal husbandry used in modern parlance. A dire need for research on traditional agricultural practices to find out the ethos behind it and adopt it in the modern times has become the need of the hour. + − + + + Line 13:
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Line 34: − + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + − + − Ploughing was generally performed with the help of oxen in teams of six, eight or twelve. Ploughing was also done with the help of one or two sheep. There was also the practice employing a maid for this purpose. Symbolic use of tilling operation in which six oxen are equivalent to six seasons and twelve oxen stand for twelve months and thus signifying twelve months preparation of sacrificial ground for the fire (agni).61 + − Furrow marks were made in grid pattern: Twelve lines made by plough drawn by twelve oxen were arranged in such a way that three lines arranged vertically, three running over them horizontally and the other six made crisscross.62 + − + + + + + + + + − + Line 62:
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Krshi Vijnana (कृषिविज्ञानम्) (view source)
Revision as of 23:07, 10 April 2020
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Bharatiya way of life involves a divine involvement in all activities, so also Krshi karma or Sasyaveda (agriculture) was revered highly for such an activity sustains life of all beings on earth.
Krshi Vijnana (Samskrit: कृषिविज्ञानम्) refers to the science of agriculture. Cultivation involves a long process starting from the preparation of land, to sowing of crops under favourable climate conditions, followed by crop protection and harvesting at the appropriate time. Ancient farmers planned their field activities involving meticulous coordination of climatic conditions with knowledge of soil and crop combinations for good yields. It involved watching the skies for cloud formation, prediction of rainfall and soil preparation thereafter selecting the appropriate crop to be sown (based on panchanga) followed by seed sowing and appropriate steps to manure, pollinate and protect the yield from pests. Thus it cannot be more emphasised that a Krshaka (farmer) was highly knowledgeable in the vijnana (scientific) aspects of cultivation, such as astronomy, soil sciences, meteorology, hydrology and irrigation techniques, genetics (rotation of crops and seed selection), ecology, botany, plant protection, mechanics (for making implements) and animal husbandry used in modern parlance.
Bharatiya way of life involves a divine involvement in all activities, so also Krshi karma or Sasyaveda (agriculture) was revered highly for such an activity sustains life of all beings on earth. In the present day there is a dire need for research on traditional agricultural practices to find out the ethos behind it and adopt it in the modern times.
Sadly in the present day due to the so called political and economic development and even in the presence of "advanced technology", the farmer is adversely affected in many ways and is at the lowest economic strata of the society. {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUze5aGqdKY&list=PLtUPB3SCffXOlZy1LfSvO9ZAcKxUQvct_&index=12
Sadly in the present day due to the so called political and economic development and even in the presence of "advanced technology", the farmer is adversely affected in many ways and is at the lowest economic strata of the society. {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUze5aGqdKY&list=PLtUPB3SCffXOlZy1LfSvO9ZAcKxUQvct_&index=12
Agricultural operations involving crop production comprised soil-preparation inclusive of tillage and fertilization, cropping system, harvesting, crop-processing and preservation. Local storage of the food grains, and fruits were given importance thus sustaining local economy and trade was an important aspect that contributed to the growth of the overall economy of the country until the recent centuries. Newer techniques to protect the agricultural produce and transportation to distant places are significant developments brought about by industrial revolution which has led to opening up of new avenues of trade and commerce in the recent few centuries.
Agricultural operations involving crop production comprised soil-preparation inclusive of tillage and fertilization, cropping system, harvesting, crop-processing and preservation. Local storage of the food grains, and fruits were given importance thus sustaining local economy and trade was an important aspect that contributed to the growth of the overall economy of the country until the recent centuries. Newer techniques to protect the agricultural produce and transportation to distant places are significant developments brought about by industrial revolution which has led to opening up of new avenues of trade and commerce in the recent few centuries.
However, with the advent of modern systems, newer problems such as pollution of air, water, land and other environmental changes have greatly disturbed the ecological balance. Needless to say that it is extremely important to research our ancient heritage to adopt integrative agricultural practices for the future of mankind. In the present context, we present the agricultural operations and the rationale (shastra) behind such activities as given in the ancient and later day classical texts.
However, with the advent of modern systems, newer problems such as pollution of air, water, land and other environmental changes have greatly disturbed the ecological balance. Needless to say that it is extremely important to research our ancient heritage to adopt integrative agricultural practices for the future of mankind. In the present context, we present the agricultural operations and the rationale (shastra) behind such activities as given in the ancient and later day classical texts. There are many samskrit texts hiterto unexplored and are to be deciphered to understand the shastra work presented. An understanding of the terminology used, the processes outlined will lead to new revelations that can be applied to the present systems, hence a study of these shastra texts is the dire need of the hour.
== Krshi Shastra References ==
== Krshi Shastra References ==
A number of classical texts related to agricultural science are available namely, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Patanjali's Mahabhasya, Krishi-Parashara, Varahmihira's Brhat Samhita, and Surapala's Vrikshayurveda are some of the manuscripts that contain valuable information about different aspects such as agricultural implements, selection of seeds, land preparation, pest control, storage, plant nutrients, grafting, soil selection, plant propagation, diseases and plant protection, mixed cropping, crop rotation, intercropping, shifting cultivation, terrace farming etc. India's traditional agriculture has proved to be sustainable by maintaining the country's fertility and biodiversity over centuries.<ref name=":03">Patil, Parashuram Vishnu. (2012) Ph. D. Thesis: ''[https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/106088 Studies on traditional agricultural practices and food grain management from Bhor Pune district and Mahad Raigad district Maharashtra state.]'' Savitribai Phule Pune University. ([https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/106088/12/12_chapter4.pdf Chapter 4])</ref>
A number of classical texts related to agricultural science are available namely, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Patanjali's Mahabhasya, Krishi-Parashara, Varahmihira's Brhat Samhita, and Surapala's Vrikshayurveda are some of the manuscripts that contain valuable information about different aspects such as agricultural implements, selection of seeds, land preparation, pest control, storage, plant nutrients, grafting, soil selection, plant propagation, diseases and plant protection, mixed cropping, crop rotation, intercropping, shifting cultivation, terrace farming etc. India's traditional agriculture has proved to be sustainable by maintaining the country's fertility and biodiversity over centuries.<ref name=":03">Patil, Parashuram Vishnu. (2012) Ph. D. Thesis: ''[https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/106088 Studies on traditional agricultural practices and food grain management from Bhor Pune district and Mahad Raigad district Maharashtra state.]'' Savitribai Phule Pune University. ([https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/106088/12/12_chapter4.pdf Chapter 4])</ref>
== Agricultural Technology ==
== Arsha Vyavasaya ==
Agriculture is an age old practice and ancient Indians had good knowledge of soil, seeds and sowing method including transplantation, seasons of plantation, use of pesticide, manuring and irrigation. Post-harvest operations of crops, for consumption like grinding, pounding, winnowing, domestic operation like baking, firing, grilling, steaming, cooking under pressure, churning butter and kitchen utensils etc were common. The Soma juice and other fermented drinks with details of base materials, ferments and manufacturing techniques were known from ancient times.
Broadly the processes which are performed by a farmer include the following eight steps from crop selection to harvesting.
Broadly the processes which are performed by a farmer include the following eight steps from crop selection to harvesting.
# Crop selection based on the land
# Crop selection
# Land preparation
# Land preparation
# Seed selection
# Seed selection
For performing these processes, traditional knowledge of farming is available in aspects such as prediction of rainfall, tillage, mixed cropping, crop rotation, crop protection, terrace farming, and agricultural implements.
For performing these processes, traditional knowledge of farming is available in aspects such as prediction of rainfall, tillage, mixed cropping, crop rotation, crop protection, terrace farming, and agricultural implements.
The development of agriculture is reflected in the number of tools and implements fashioned by the people of different communities. Of the different stages in cultivation the impact of implements is seen in the first and basic one, that is tillage. The nature of operations under the tillage may vary from region to region and so will vary the implements used. The most important of the tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.
The development of agriculture is reflected in the number of tools and implements fashioned by the people of different communities. Of the different stages in cultivation the impact of implements is seen in the first and basic one, that is tillage. The nature of operations under the tillage may vary from region to region and so will vary the implements used.
=== कृषकः ॥ Farmer ===
Farmers are the central and integral part of an agricultural system. No one can even think of agricultural practices sans farmers. Hence, farmers have been highly placed in Sanskrit literature. Farmers have been referred to as owners of the cultivable lands namely Ksetrapati (क्षेत्रपतिः). Apart from Kṛṣaka (कृषकः), he is also called as Krsika (कृषिकः), Kṛṣīvala (कृषीवलः), Karṣaka (कर्षकः) etc. The word ‘Kināśa’ has also been used for farmer in Vedas. Indra and other devatas, were the first farmers; an anecdote from the Shrutis.<blockquote>एत मुत्यं मधुना संयुतं यवम् । सरस्वत्या अधिमना वचर्क्रुषुः । इन्द्र असी त्सीरपतिः शतक्रतुः । कीनाशा आसन्मरुतः सुदानवः । ७ (Tait. Brah. 2.4.8)<ref>Taittriya Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4 Kanda 2 Prapathaka 4])</ref></blockquote>Summary: In olden times when Prajapati was ruling the land, Indra who performed a hundred asvamedha yajnas, performed agricultural activities with the help of Marut ganas for tilling, sowing the yava seeds, and irrigating with the sweetened waters of Sarasvati river.<ref>Ganapati Sastry, Uppuluri. (2000) ''Vedasara Ratnavali. Dvitiya Bhaga.'' Hyderabad: Amba Communicatons (Pages 504 - 510)</ref>
Describing the significance of farmer, a seer of Ṛgveda says-We will be victorious and happy with the association of our friend and owner of the field-Kṣetrapati. Let the owner of the field bestow upon us cattle, horses and nourishment.56 A seer of Yajurveda salutes owner of the land-क्षेत्र र् िं पतये नमः।57 <ref>Dr. Dhananjay Vasudeo Dvivedi, (2017) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331889740_Concept_of_Irrigation_as_Depicted_in_Sanskrit_Texts Concept of Irrigation as Depicted in Sanskrit Texts] in Samskrta Vimarsah 2017 (Vol 12)</ref>
Atharvaveda says that those actually working in the fields are the real owner of the lands.58 Bṛhatpārāśara says that a farmer favours all living beings by supplying food grains to them through his noble service in the field. All sacrifices depend upon farmers. Farmer helps to fill the treasury of a king by paying himself the taxes and making others able to pay tax. The farmer feeds ancestors (manes), various deities and people-
सवथसत्ोपक र य सवथयज्ञोपषसद्धये। नृपस्य कोशवृद्ध्यर्ं ज यते कृषषकृन्नरः।। षपतृदेवमनुष्य र् िं पुष्टये स्य त् कृषीवलः।59
According to Pāṇini there are three kinds of farmers-
Ahali-Farmers who do not have their own ploughs.
Suhali-Farmers who are in possession of good land or ploughs.
Durhali-Farmers who have old ploughs.
The Atharvaveda gives importance to the education of farmers for the country to attain strong economy. The farmers educated in Vārtā Vidyā can produce more in the field. According to Atharvaveda, in the country where the Vārtā is not advertised and popularized
=== क्षेत्रम् ॥ Kshetra (Land) ===
=== क्षेत्रम् ॥ Kshetra (Land) ===
Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of riverplain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India.6
Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.
The fertile lower basins of the seven Punjab rivers were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.7 River sides were considered fertile. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides. The Rigveda recognizes two types of land. These are fertile or apnasvati and arid or artana.8 The former is marshy or riverine tract, known as anupa and the latter, arid, known as jangala. Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature.9 Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed.12 Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />
The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides. The Rigveda recognizes two types of land. These are fertile or apnasvati and arid or aartana.<blockquote>स हि शर्धो न मारुतं तुविष्वणिरप्नस्वतीषू॒र्वरास्विष्टनिरार्तनास्विष्टनि: । (Rig. Veda. 1.127.6)</blockquote>The former is marshy or riverine tract, known as anupa and the latter, arid, known as jangala. Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature.9 Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed.12 Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />
=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===
=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===
The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.
Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 391 - )</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य प्हलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref>Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.
Mowing (matyam) was the post-plough operation.63
A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.
* Ploughing was generally performed with the help of oxen in teams of six, eight or twelve (one or two sheep were also used). Symbolic use of tilling operation in which six oxen are equivalent to six seasons and twelve oxen stand for twelve months.<ref name=":3" />
* Sita or Furrow marks were made in grid pattern: Twelve lines made by plough drawn by twelve oxen were arranged in such a way that three lines arranged vertically, three running over them horizontally and the other six made crisscross.<ref name=":3" />
* Deep ploughing brings out clods of earth from the soil and increases the fertility of the field. The Krshiparasara (verses 142-43) recommends ploughing to be done five times. The first ploughing gives wealth, the third the desired object, and the fifth a rich harvest.<ref name=":1" />
* Mowing (matyam) was the post-plough operation.63
=== Cropping System ===
It includes sowing of seeds of different kinds in grid-pattered furrows64 and the methodology adopted for rotation of crops. Reaping, threshing, winnowing and storing are the post-cultivating processes, noticed from the period of the Rigveda. The Rigveda (10.101) presents a picturesque description from ploughing to reaping inclusive of irrigation. All the operations were carried out with laudatory song to the Visvadevas. Reaping was done with the help of sickle (srni) when the corns ripe. Thrashing the bundles of grain-stalks on the floor of granary (khala) and winnowing in winnowing-baskets (sthivi) were the different post sowing operations mentioned in the Rigveda. The Atharvaveda refers winnowing fan (surpa) in this connection. Grains (here barley) were stored in a vessel (urdara).65
=== Crop Specimens ===
=== Crop Specimens ===
A host of crops scattered in the Yajurvedic texts show the presence of cereals, legumes, oil seeds, fibrous plants, fruit crops and green vegetables.<ref name=":3">Roy, Mira. ''Agriculture in the Vedic Period.'' Indian Journal of History of Science, 44.4 (2009) 497-520</ref>
A host of crops scattered in the Yajurvedic texts show the presence of cereals, legumes, oil seeds, fibrous plants, fruit crops and green vegetables.<ref name=":3">Roy, Mira. ''[https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol44_4_2_MRoy.pdf Agriculture in the Vedic Period.]'' Indian Journal of History of Science, 44.4 (2009) 497-520</ref>
* '''Cereals''':
* '''Cereals''':
(a) Rice (vrihi): Four cultivated varieties were seen, viz. black (krshna), white (shukla), quick-grown (aasu) and mahavrihi (large grained). The last two varieties were confined only to central India. The quick-grown variety appears to have been known as shastika (ripens within sixty days) in the later periods.
(a) Rice (vrihi): Four cultivated varieties were seen, viz. black (krshna), white (shukla), quick-grown (aasu) and mahavrihi (large grained). The last two varieties were confined only to central India. The quick-grown variety appears to have been known as shastika (ripens within sixty days) in the later periods.
Seasonal correlations with crops are enumerated in the Taittiriya Samhita. It presents a small crop chart containing four crops and their associated ripening seasons: <blockquote>यवं ग्रीष्मायौषधीर्वर्षाभ्यो व्रीहीञ्छरदे माषतिलौ हेमन्तशिशिराभ्याम् । (Tait. Samh. 7.2.10.2). </blockquote>The hot season for barley (यव); autumn for rice; winter and cool season for beans and sesame. Barley ripened in summer was sown undoubtedly in winter as in present day. Likewise rice ripened in autumn used to be sown in the beginning of the rains. Beans and sesame planted at the time of summer rains were ripened in the winter and the cool season.<ref name=":3" />
Seasonal correlations with crops are enumerated in the Taittiriya Samhita. It presents a small crop chart containing four crops and their associated ripening seasons: <blockquote>यवं ग्रीष्मायौषधीर्वर्षाभ्यो व्रीहीञ्छरदे माषतिलौ हेमन्तशिशिराभ्याम् । (Tait. Samh. 7.2.10.2). </blockquote>The hot season for barley (यव); autumn for rice; winter and cool season for beans and sesame. Barley ripened in summer was sown undoubtedly in winter as in present day. Likewise rice ripened in autumn used to be sown in the beginning of the rains. Beans and sesame planted at the time of summer rains were ripened in the winter and the cool season.<ref name=":3" />
=== Plant Protection Measures ===
The preventive measures to protect plants and crops included a few following methods which are used till date by the farmers. We see from the ancient texts that the knowledge of protection measures was well developed.
# driving away the pest-bird by din and noise. The Rigveda (10.68.1) thus describes, “उदप्रुतो न वयो रक्षमाणा वावदतो अभ्रियस्येव घोषा: । Like the farmers make noise to drive away the birds from fields”.
# control by rotation of crops. The Taittiriya Samhita refers to rotation of crops. Obviously that practice also afforded natural prevention of crops from incest-pest.58
Excepting bird no other pestiferous agents were known in the preceding period. A host of such elements infesting grains in the field and unfavourable natural phenomena causing harm to crops came to be known during the Atharvavedic period. The pests inclusive of natural phenomena were.59 a) Borer (tarda) indicating either insect or bird, hooked insect (saman. ka), noxious insect (upakvasa) and locust (patan. ga), b) Rodents (vyadvaras) and rats (a – khu) c) Reptiles d) Natural phenomenon like lightening and sun. Charms and spells formed the preventive and remedial measures. The late Vedic period introduced weed as pest in addition to those recognized in the Atharvaveda. Weed was particularly wheat-pest. Preventive and remedial measures were charms and spells in association with some substances appear to have pesticidal effects. These include: a) spreading of lead after furrowing, b) burying in field the metabolic product (grass) from the bowels of sacrificed cattle and some parts of particular plant substances. Weed control was also recommended by burying of several plantsubstances in the fields before sowing of seeds.60
== Agricultural implements ==
All the agricultural operations were carried out by implements suited to them. The artefacts and innovations were moulded according to the nature of soil, dimension of cultivable field and above all techniques involved in particular operation. Vedic implements show four types of implements. These are:
'''Forest-clearance tools''': Axe (svadhiti, parasu) and axe type tools are mentioned as tool for cutting wood in the Rigveda. 66
'''Soil-treatment''':67 The Rigveda refers to mower (data) for grass-cutting which might be taken as pre-tilling performance of the soil. The Taittiriya Samhita brought into notice the use of roller for making field even for tilling.
Tillage implements: The plough 68 described in the Rigveda is characterized as traction plough.69 The Vedic plough is distinguished by:
a) two types: langala (small plough) and sira (heavy plough).
b) four parts:70 plough i.e. indicating the rod (langala, sira), the rope (varatra), share (phala), and yoke (yuga). The latter is however absent in some descriptions of plough which indicates a particular type in which the plough itself is fastened to the animal body instead of being tied to the yoke. The Yajurveda71 describes plough as lance-pointed, well-lying and furnished with a handle (tsru).
(c) Animal power dragging the plough: 72 Oxen, sheep and camel were harnessed for dragging the plough. Number of animals varied according to the dimension of plough. Six, twelve, twenty-four formed different animal strength in the dragging of plough. Mention is also made of dragging of plough by one and by two sheeps.
Harvesting tool: Three types of corn-cutting tools are found to occur in the Rigveda. 73 These include: datra (a sort of sickle in the shape of crooked knife), srni (sickle) and jeta (reaping hook).
Corn-cleaning equipments: The sieve and winnowing fan mentioned in the Rigveda, were probably used for this purpose.74
Transport for carrying agricultural products: Two types of carriers, viz ana– sa (carts) and sƒakat.a (wagon) were for commercial types. The former was two-wheeled, made of woods of Acacia and Dalbergia with bamboo poles and wheels rimmed with metal tyre (pavi). The latter was also wooden body and especially meant for carrying agricultural products from the field. The chariots, in addition to those two were used for carrying agricultural products from the field. Animals employed for drawing these carriers were ox, stallion, ram and dog.75
=== Prediction of Rainfall ===
=== Prediction of Rainfall ===
The systematic study of meteorological science was made by our ancient astronomers and astrologers. Agriculture is totally dependent on rainfall. This fact was first realised by Indians. Hence they started gauging the sky for rainfall prediction. Parashra gave the techniques of rainfall prediction and agricultural practices for crop production. Garg invented the science of astrology. Arybhata measured the time period of different planets and distance from earth. Varahmihira (600 AD) studied weather prediction and measurement of rainfall, touching zenith in the meteorological science. The hypotheses given by ancient scientists are simple and costly apparatus were not used. Observations coupled with experience over centuries developed meteorology (Varshney, 2007).
The systematic study of meteorological science was made by our ancient astronomers and astrologers. Agriculture is totally dependent on rainfall. This fact was first realised by Indians. Hence they started gauging the sky for rainfall prediction. Parashra gave the techniques of rainfall prediction and agricultural practices for crop production. Garg invented the science of astrology. Arybhata measured the time period of different planets and distance from earth. Varahmihira (600 AD) studied weather prediction and measurement of rainfall, touching zenith in the meteorological science. The hypotheses given by ancient scientists are simple and costly apparatus were not used. Observations coupled with experience over centuries developed meteorology (Varshney, 2007).
The methods used by local and indigenous people for forecasting rainfall and other weather conditions on the basis of bio-indicator and the phenology of plants and behaviour of animals is coined as a new term – Presage biology. The production and application of local forecasts are deeply localized, derived from intimate interactions with a micro-environment whose rhythms are intertwined with the cycles of seasonal changes. Local indicators and local knowledge systems can not be replaced with scientific knowledge, because they are holistic and specific to local situations, providing farmers and others with the ability to make decisions and prepare for the coming agricultural year. Mechanisms for integrating both traditional and scientific weather forecast systems would reduce uncertainties and improve farm management, as well as provide a basis for integrating scientific forecasts into existing decision processes of farmers (Acharya, 2011). Bio-indicators as well as Almanacs (Panchang) have been used to predict the weather for a very long time and many times proved very effective and successful.<ref name=":0">Patil, Parashuram Vishnu. (2012) Ph. D. Thesis: ''[https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/106088 Studies on traditional agricultural practices and food grain management from Bhor Pune district and Mahad Raigad district Maharashtra state.]'' Savitribai Phule Pune University. ([https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/106088/12/12_chapter4.pdf Chapter 4])</ref>
The methods used by local and indigenous people for forecasting rainfall and other weather conditions on the basis of bio-indicator and the phenology of plants and behaviour of animals is coined as a new term – Presage biology. The production and application of local forecasts are deeply localized, derived from intimate interactions with a micro-environment whose rhythms are intertwined with the cycles of seasonal changes. Local indicators and local knowledge systems can not be replaced with scientific knowledge, because they are holistic and specific to local situations, providing farmers and others with the ability to make decisions and prepare for the coming agricultural year. Mechanisms for integrating both traditional and scientific weather forecast systems would reduce uncertainties and improve farm management, as well as provide a basis for integrating scientific forecasts into existing decision processes of farmers (Acharya, 2011). Bio-indicators as well as Almanacs (Panchang) have been used to predict the weather for a very long time and many times proved very effective and successful.<ref name=":0">Patil, Parashuram Vishnu. (2012) Ph. D. Thesis: ''[https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/106088 Studies on traditional agricultural practices and food grain management from Bhor Pune district and Mahad Raigad district Maharashtra state.]'' Savitribai Phule Pune University. ([https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/106088/12/12_chapter4.pdf Chapter 4])</ref>
The study of the correlation between weather and heavenly phenomena and their impact on crop prospects was a part of agricultural activities. Prior of the Vedic period we have no record of this type of practice, excepting a few instances. Development of this idea is noticed during the Harappa period in regard to several heavenly bodies which were believed, not only in India but also elsewhere, to be rain-bearing agents. These are Mrgasira (Orionis), Krttika (Pleiades) and Venus.109 In all probability these heavenly bodies got predominance as indicator of seasonal rainfall, cultivation of crops other than barley and wheat, and growth of fish-crops.
The idea of correlation between seasonal rainfall and associated heavenly phenomena is explicit in the Vedic period. Crop prospects began to be studied in relation to seasonal rain, fogginess and dew under the influence of heavenly bodies. Rainfall: The R. gveda recognizes two seasons of rainfall, associated with summer solstice and winter solstice.
An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.
An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.
== Modern Agriculture ==
== Adhunika Vyavasayam ==
In a stark contrast to the traditional agricultural practices, modern systems of agriculture use genetically engineered and/or hybrid seeds of single crop variety, technologically driven implements and equipments such as tractors, shredders, spreaders etc, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and water to produce large amounts of single crop. A few characteristics of modern agriculture as discussed by Prof. D. P. Mishra include the following
In a stark contrast to the traditional agricultural practices, modern systems of agriculture use genetically engineered and/or hybrid seeds of single crop variety, technologically driven implements and equipments such as tractors, shredders, spreaders etc, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and water to produce large amounts of single crop. A few characteristics of modern agriculture as discussed by Prof. D. P. Mishra include the following
* It has higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural area
* It has higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural area