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=== वेदेषु कृषिविषयाः ॥ Agriculture in Vedas ===

=== वेदेषु कृषिविषयाः ॥ Agriculture in Vedas ===

Yajurveda says that one should make effort for producing abundant grains through agriculture.<ref name=":2" />

Agricultural practices have been described in the vedic literature, not as narratives but as sporadic references. Agriculture not only involved crop production involving a number of practices, but also domestication of animals. Thus agriculture and cattle rearing went hand in hand and prosperity in those days was a measure of high crop yield and large numbers of domesticated animals mostly, cattle.

Speaking about the importance of agriculture, Rig Vedic seer says-O gambler, stop gambling, and engage yourself in agriculture, which is regarded as most valuable wealth, so that you will earn wealth, happiness, cattle and happy married life. You respect this wealth and be content with this wealth.<blockquote>अक्षैर्मा दीव्यः कृषिमित्कृषस्व वित्ते रमस्व बहु मन्यमानः । तत्र गाव: कितव तत्र जाया तन्मे वि चष्टे सवितायमर्यः ॥१३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.34.13)<ref>Rig Veda ([http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-034/ Mandala 10 Sukta 34])</ref></blockquote>The Ṛgveda further adds that the cultivator is bound to get plentiful crops and immense wealth (Rig. Veda. 7.39.2).  

Speaking about the importance of agriculture, Rig Vedic seer says-O gambler, stop gambling, and engage yourself in agriculture, which is regarded as most valuable wealth, so that you will earn wealth, happiness, cattle and happy married life. You respect this wealth and be content with this wealth.<blockquote>अक्षैर्मा दीव्यः कृषिमित्कृषस्व वित्ते रमस्व बहु मन्यमानः । तत्र गाव: कितव तत्र जाया तन्मे वि चष्टे सवितायमर्यः ॥१३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.34.13)<ref>Rig Veda ([http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-034/ Mandala 10 Sukta 34])</ref></blockquote>The Ṛgveda further adds that the cultivator is bound to get plentiful crops and immense wealth (Rig. Veda. 7.39.2).  

The Atharvaveda also highlights the importance of agriculture. Agricultural work used to be practiced by skilled persons. Poets and scholars took this occupation and did farming for happiness. Agriculture was a delightful occupation in which Indra and Pusha were also engaged. Success in agriculture leads to success in life. The person possessing abundant food grains is respected as a great man in the society (Aitareya Brahmana 2.5). Through agriculture one can acquire vigour, energy and power. In the Yajurveda and Taittirīya Saṃhitā agriculture is regarded as the means of human welfare. It is the source of prosperity and sustenance. It gives grain, strength and lustre.   

The Atharvaveda also highlights the importance of agriculture. There are dedicated suktas for krishi (3.17 for agriculture), vanaspati (3.18 for medicinal herbs) and pashuposhana (3.28 for livestock). Agricultural work used to be practiced by skilled persons. Poets and scholars took this occupation and did farming for happiness. Agriculture was a delightful occupation in which Indra and Pusha were also engaged. Success in agriculture leads to success in life. The person possessing abundant food grains is respected as a great man in the society (Aitareya Brahmana 2.5). Through agriculture one can acquire vigour, energy and power. In the Yajurveda and Taittirīya Saṃhitā agriculture is regarded as the means of human welfare. It is the source of prosperity and sustenance. It gives grain, strength and lustre.   

Various sūktas of Ṛgveda such as Kṣetrapati29, Parjanya30, Pṛthvī31, Go32, Āpaḥ33, Akṣa34, Viśvedevā35 and Araṇyanī36 have well described in the importance of agriculture. Similarly various sūktas of Atharvaveda including Kṛṣi37, Anna38, Anna samṛddhi39 have talked about the significance of agriculture.

Various sūktas of Ṛgveda such as Kṣetrapati29, Parjanya30, Pṛthvī31, Go32, Āpaḥ33, Akṣa34, Viśvedevā35 and Araṇyanī36 have well described in the importance of agriculture.

=== कश्यपीयकृषिसूक्तिः ॥ Kashyapiya-krishi-sukti ===

In the Rigveda, the deities Dyava-Prthvi, are extolled for regaining control over the fertile lands from the Dasyus. Mantras praising [[Indra (इन्द्रः)|Indra]] as the deity for granting copious rains are well-known. So also [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] is praised as the deity having bonds in the three lokas; his bond in water i.e., habitable world, explained by Sayanacharya, are tillage, rain and seed. His rays called Asva are powerful and he is known to "drink the waters in the oceans" to form clouds. Thus [[Jala Vijnana (जलविज्ञानम्)|hydrology]] or science of water is intimately connected with the deity Surya.  

Kashyapiyakrishisukti mentions that production of grains and other vegetation are the sole purpose of highest fulfilment of the earth. The rich earth full of vegetation is the cause of growth of living beings-<blockquote>सस्यादिरेव मेदिन्याः परोधर्मः परं यशः। सस्यपूर्णा वसुमती प्राणिनां प्राणवर्धिनी।। (1.18)</blockquote>It further adds that it is the giver of all auspicious things, leading to the satisfaction of devatas especially with its perpetual power to produce grain and fountains of sweet water-<blockquote>सर्वमङ्गलदात्री च देवानां तुष्टिदायिनी। नित्यसस्या च मधुरजलस्रावा विशेषतः।। (1.19)</blockquote>Seers with divine insight eulogize agricultural business as the basis of sacrifice and as life giver of living beings-<blockquote>यज्ञानामपि चाधारः प्राणिनां जीवदायकम्। कृषिकर्म प्रशंसन्ति मुनयो दिव्यचक्षुसः।। (1.235)</blockquote>Men should exert and devote themselves to farming whether they get farmlands from a king or purchase one for themselves-<blockquote>नृपत् प्राप्तं स्वतःक्रीत सस्यक्षेत्रं तु मानवाः। संप्राप्य यत्नवन्तश्च कृषिकार्यकृतादराः ।। (1.236)</blockquote>They are said to please devatas and rshis. Of all wealth, agriculture is the highest wealth-<blockquote>देवानां च मुनीनां च मे मताः प्रीतिदायिनः। घनानामपि सर्वेषां कृषिरेव परं धनम्।। (1.237)</blockquote>As this wealth cannot be taken away by others, it is commended by everyone. Yielding profuse returns, it provides pure grains and other things which please devatas-<blockquote>परैरग्राह्यमादिष्टं सर्वंश्श्लाघ्यं महाफलम्। देवानां प्रीतिजनक शुद्धद्रव्यप्रदायि तत्।।(1.238)</blockquote>Keeping away dependence on others, always yielding wealth, it provides for the guests, deities, and one’s own family-<blockquote>परातन्त्र्यहरं चैव नित्यम लक्ष्मीविलासकृतम्। तथातिथीनां देवानां स्वकुटुम्बस्य जीवदम्।। (1.239)</blockquote>Giving delight in several ways, the profession of farming is indeed praiseworthy. Any other livelihood involves dependence-<blockquote>नानाविधानन्दकरं कृषिकर्म प्रशस्यते। अतस्तदन्या वृत्तिस्तु पारतन्त्र्येण गुम्भिता ।।(1.240)</blockquote>The natural inclination of people towards agriculture pleases devatas and be nurtured with special effort as it sustains life of all living beings-<blockquote>कृषिप्रवृत्तिं सर्वेषां देवानां प्रीतिदायिनीम्। यत्नतो रक्षयेयुस्तां जीवानां जीवनप्रदाम्।। (1.244)</blockquote>Seers are of the opinion that farming activity should be planned and undertaken in every community, in every country, in every rural part, and in every tableland-<blockquote>वने जनपदे देशे क्षेत्रे ग्राम्ये भृगोस्तटे। कृषिप्रवृषत्तिं संकल्प्यां मन्यते हि मुनीश्वराः ।। (1.245)</blockquote>Sages of ancient times have pursued agricultural activities even on open yards of cottages with a view to benefit all beings-<blockquote>पुरातनैस्तु मुनिभिरुटजाङ्गणभूमिषु । कृषिकर्मकृतं लोके सर्वप्राणिहितार्थिभिः।। (1.246)</blockquote>Undertaking in agriculture is to be pursued by all great men of sharp intelligence to get permanent joy-<blockquote>अतः कृष्यादानमेतत् सर्वेः पुरुषपुङ्गवैः। सूक्ष्मधीभिरिहासेव्यं शाश्वतानन्दहेतवे।। (1.248)</blockquote>

Yajurveda says that one should make effort for producing abundant grains through agriculture.<ref name=":2" />

Krshiparashara has discussed the importance of agriculture. It says that even a learned Brahmin who is proficient in all the four Vedas, who recites Shastras and is intelligent, when is overpowered by Alakṣmī, is reduced to humiliation caused be begging for food with folded hands. And only through farming, one however ceases to be a suitor. By practicing agriculture alone one is bound to be bhupati (master of the earth). People even having surplus of gold, silver, jewels and garments have to solicit farmers as earnestly as a devotee would pray. People in spite of having gold ornaments in their necks, ears and hands have to suffer from hunger in absence of food. Food is life, food is also the strength, food is everything. The divinities, the demons, and all human beings depend on food for surviving. Food, verily, comes from grains and grains cannot be available without agriculture. Therefore, leaving everything else one should strive for farming. Blessed is agriculture, holy is agriculture, and agriculture is life of all living creatures-.

Here one sūkta namely Kṛṣi sūkta from Atharvaveda is quoted in totality-

=== Atharvaveda ===

The Atharvaveda, describes the life of the ancient agriculturists in India. It is regarded as the most honourable of human activities by all sections of people and practiced irrespective of varnas. Farmer was an authority in the knowledge and production of food and hence respected as "Annadata". Ploughing the land was considered a privilege, and it is well known that Janaka Maharaja of Videha, found the girl child during ploughing of the land for a yajna, and named her Sita (which means furrow made by the plough). Everyone had a piece of land, big or small, which was cultivated to sustain the family. The farm is compared to the divine cow fulfilling all the desires of the hard working farmer. Ancient Indian farmers evolved nature friendly farming systems and practices.

i.e. the men of wisdom and firm attitude bind plough fast and harness the yokes on the side to attain the wealth of grains among the men of learning.

Krshi sukta from Atharvaveda is quoted in totality (Kanda 3 Sukta 17).<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>सीरा युञ्जन्ति कवयो युगा वि तन्वते पृथक्। धीरा देवेषु सुम्नयौ ॥१॥</blockquote><blockquote>युनक्त सीरा वि युगा तनोत कृते योनौ वपतेह बीजम् । विराजः श्नुष्टिः सभरा असन्नो नेदीय इत्सृण्यः पक्वमा यवन् ॥२॥</blockquote>Wise men fasten the bulls to the plough, to please the devatas with a desire to attain the wealth of grains, the wise among the learned place the harness on bulls. O Peasants! fasten the plough to the harness and place them on the bulls, sow the seeds (of wheat, jowar etc) capable of sprouting in these fields which are ploughed. May these plants become heavy with food grain filled pods fit to be reaped with the sickles.<blockquote>लाङ्गलं पवीरवत्सुशीमं सोमसत्सरु । उदिद्वपतु गामविं प्रस्थावद्रथवाहनं पीबरीं च प्रफर्व्यम् ॥३॥</blockquote><blockquote>इन्द्रः सीतां नि गृह्णातु तां पूषाभिरक्षतु । सा नः पयस्वती दुहामुत्तरामुत्तरां समाम् ॥४॥</blockquote>The sharp-edged plough is making furrows in the grounds, the seed sower brings happiness to the farmer. May the cows and goats (in the sense of animals of farming) become efficient. May the bulls and horses which draw the rathas become strong. May Indra rain and give water to the furrows having seeds, may Pusha (Surya) preserve and protect the sprouting seeds. May the well irrigated farm give good yields through each succeeding years.<blockquote>शुनं सुफाला वि तुदन्तु भूमिं शुनं कीनाशा अनु यन्तु वाहान् । शुनासीरा हविषा तोशमाना सुपिप्पला ओषधीः कर्तमस्मै ॥५॥</blockquote><blockquote>शुनं वाहाः शुनं नरः शुनं कृषतु लाङ्गलम् । शुनं वरत्रा बध्यन्तां शुनमष्ट्रामुदिङ्गय ॥६॥</blockquote><blockquote>शुनासीरेह स्म मे जुषेथाम् । यद्दिवि चक्रथुः पयस्तेनेमामुप सिञ्चतम् ॥७॥</blockquote>Let the plough turn up the land and bring us happiness. Farmers may go along with oxen in happiness. Let the Shunaseera devatas, Vayu (Air) and Surya (Sun) be contented with the havis that are offered (in the sense of yajnas performed in agricultural processes) and give good rains that cause our plants to bear abundant food. Let the bulls and horses pull the ploughs happily, let the farmers work happily, let the plough turn out the land nicely, let the harness be bound safely and let the driving goad be happily applied on the bulls. Let the Shunaseera devatas be favourable to me by bestowing this Earth with water which they create in sky.<blockquote>सीते वन्दामहे त्वार्वाची सुभगे भव । यथा नः सुमना असो यथा नः सुफला भुवः ॥८॥</blockquote><blockquote>घृतेन सीता मधुना समक्ता विश्वैर्देवैरनुमता मरुद्भिः । सा नः सीते पयसाभ्याववृत्स्वोर्जस्वती घृतवत्पिन्वमाना ॥९॥</blockquote>We praise the furrow (Sita) made by the plough and let it be directly favourable for us. May it be fruitful for us. Let the furrow be beset with honey like water and I invoke Visvedevas and Maruts to protect this furrow made favourable for crops (by all the physical forces and various kinds of airs). Enriched with ghee like viscous material let this furrow make us happy with being full of water.<ref>Atharvaveda Telugu Translation (Page No 387-398)</ref>

i.e. O’ Ye peasants; lay on the plough, harness the yokes, sow seeds in the races formed, and when the earnings are fraught with plenty of grain and after sometimes when grains are ripe reap with sickle.

In effect, the agricultural work was considered to be pious job.49 The Ṛgveda directs even the elite class of the society to perform the job of agriculture as it was considered to be equivalent of Yajña.50 Ṛgveda mentions some experts in agriculture who knew how to increase the output of agriculture.51 According to the Atharvaveda, food is the basic necessity for human beings. But the availability of food depends of agriculture. People well versed in agricultural activities were considered to be highly respectable and successful in their endeavour.52

i.e. The sharp-shared plough, that brings out happiness and that is furnished with traces and with stilts, becomes the means of having cow, sheep, rapid chariot and strong blooming woman.

A number of classical texts related to agricultural science are available namely, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Patanjali's Mahabhasya, Krishi-Parashara, Varahmihira's Brhat Samhita, and Surapala's Vrikshayurveda are some of the manuscripts that contain valuable information about different aspects such as agricultural implements, selection of seeds, land preparation, pest control, storage, plant nutrients, grafting, soil selection, plant propagation, diseases and plant protection, mixed cropping, crop rotation, intercropping, shifting cultivation, terrace farming etc. India's traditional agriculture has proved to be sustainable by maintaining the country's fertility and biodiversity over centuries.<ref name=":0">Patil, Parashuram Vishnu. (2012) Ph. D. Thesis: ''[https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/106088 Studies on traditional agricultural practices and food grain management from Bhor Pune district and Mahad Raigad district Maharashtra state.]'' Savitribai Phule Pune University. ([https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/106088/12/12_chapter4.pdf Chapter 4])</ref>

 

 

May Indra, the air with rain make furrow normal, may the Sun preserve its fertility. May the well irrigated yield us good crop through each succeeding year.

 

 

 

Let the plough-shares turn up the plough-land in happiness and let hard-working ploughers go with oxen in happiness. Air and Sun nourishing the earth with water, cause our plants, bear abundant food.

 

 

Let the bulls and horses pull the ploughs happily, let the men work happily, let the plough turn out land nicely, let the traces be bound and let the driving goad be happily plied.

 

 

Let the air and Sun be favourable to me. They bedew this Earth with water which they create in sky.

 

 

We praise the furrow and let it be directly favourable for us. May it be fruitful for us.

 

 

 

Let the furrow be beswed with butter and honey and be made favourable for crops by all the physical forces and various kinds of airs. Full of grains and enriched with butter let this furrow make us happy with various cereals.

 

In effect, the agricultural work was considered to be pious job.49 The Ṛgveda directs even the elite class of the society to perform the job of agriculture as it was considered to be equivalent of Yajña.50 Ṛgveda mentions some experts in agriculture who knew how to increase the output of agriculture.51 According to the Atharvaveda, food is the basic necessity for human beings. But the availability of food depends of agriculture. People well versed in agricultural activities were considered to be highly respectable and successful in their endeavour.52 Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa53 and Mahābhārata54 are also of the opinion that people engaged in agriculture are bound to lead a happy and prosperous life. According to Śukranīti, agriculture of a land irrigated with river water is the best means of one’s livelihood.55

== Modern Agriculture ==

== Modern Agriculture ==

== Agriculture as in Vedas ==

== Agriculture as in Vedas ==

== Agricultural Processes ==

== Agricultural Processes ==

Broadly the processes which are performed by a farmer include the following eight steps from crop selection to harvesting.

Broadly the processes which are performed by a farmer include the following eight steps from crop selection to harvesting.