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Yantra (Samskrit: यन्त्रम्) refers to contrivances or instruments developed using the fundamental knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, physics, agriculture among other shastras for enabling ease of activities in daily lives. Enormous scientific marvels of modern day mechanical interventions and development of instruments and appliances in the past few centuries, may lead to a misplaced conclusion that sciences have only developed in the recent few centuries.   

Yantra (Samskrit: यन्त्रम्) refers to contrivances or instruments developed using the fundamental knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, physics, agriculture among other shastras for enabling ease of activities in daily lives. Enormous scientific marvels of modern day mechanical interventions and development of instruments and appliances in the past few centuries, may lead to a misplaced conclusion that sciences have only developed in the recent few centuries.   

The discovery of ancient manuscripts and the advance of research have both brought to light no insignificant amount of ancient Indian activity in the fields of positive aspects of life, of subjects of practical interest and scientific value, which reveal a holistic intellectual advancement in Bharat bringing about outstanding contributions in the fields of ganita, jyotisha, medicine, agriculture. It is these earlier experiments that have been the forerunners of the recent advancements in the field of science and technology, many of which continue to exist as the foundational principles of modern day appliances and technical advancements.<ref>Raghavan, V. (1952) ''Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in  Ancient India''. Bangalore: The Indian Institute of Culture</ref>

The discovery of ancient manuscripts and the advance of research have both brought to light no insignificant amount of ancient Indian activity in the fields of positive aspects of life, of subjects of practical interest and scientific value, which reveal a holistic intellectual advancement in Bharat bringing about outstanding contributions in the fields of ganita, jyotisha, medicine, agriculture. It is these earlier experiments that have been the forerunners of the recent advancements in the field of science and technology, many of which continue to exist as the foundational principles of modern day appliances and technical advancements.<ref name=":1">Raghavan, V. (1952) ''Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in  Ancient India''. Bangalore: The Indian Institute of Culture</ref>

== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

That from ancient times the idea of a ''yantra'' was very common is proved by two facts, the application of the concept to the esoteric sphere, and the way the yantra roused the imagination of the spiritual writers. In esoteric worship the yantra was a chart which stored up within its confines spiritual power; drawn on' a flat surface or made in relief, it had components or details which had to be strictly conformed to and, as an instrument for achieving spiritual power, it eminently deserved the name "yantra." Yantras as means of achieving spiritual progress are discussed elsewhere while in this article focus is placed on yantras used for any simple contrivance used freely for many activities of daily live.  

That from ancient times the idea of a ''yantra'' was very common is proved by two facts, the application of the concept to the esoteric sphere, and the way the yantra roused the imagination of the spiritual writers. In esoteric worship the yantra was a chart which stored up within its confines spiritual power; drawn on' a flat surface or made in relief, it had components or details which had to be strictly conformed to and, as an instrument for achieving spiritual power, it eminently deserved the name "yantra." Yantras as means of achieving spiritual progress are discussed elsewhere while in this article focus is placed on yantras used for any simple contrivance used freely for many activities of daily lives.

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

== Etymology ==

== Etymology ==

The word yantra is derived from the dhatu यम् used in the sense "to control", and has been freely used in ancient India for any contrivance or machine. In Samarangana Sutradhara, Maharaja Bhojadeva defines Yantra as follows<blockquote>यदृच्छया प्रवृत्तानि भूतानि स्वेन वर्त्मना। नियम्यास्मिन् नयति यत्तद्यन्त्रमिति कीर्तितम् ॥३ (Sama. Sutra. 31.4)<ref>Raja Bhojadeva's Samarangana Sutradhara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%A7 Adhyaya 31])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>स्वरसेन प्रवृत्तानि भूतानि स्वमनीषया। कृतं यस्माद्यमयति तद्वा यन्त्रमिति स्मृतम् ॥४ (Sama. Sutra. 31.4)</blockquote>Dr. V.R. Raghavan in his article “Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in Ancient India” describes that yantra is so called because it controls and directs according to a plan, the motions of things that act each according to its own nature.<ref name=":0" />

The word yantra is derived from the dhatu यम् used in the sense "to control", and has been freely used in ancient India for any contrivance or machine. In Samarangana Sutradhara, Maharaja Bhojadeva defines Yantra as follows<blockquote>यदृच्छया प्रवृत्तानि भूतानि स्वेन वर्त्मना। नियम्यास्मिन् नयति यत्तद्यन्त्रमिति कीर्तितम् ॥३ (Sama. Sutra. 31.4)<ref name=":2">Raja Bhojadeva's Samarangana Sutradhara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%A7 Adhyaya 31])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>स्वरसेन प्रवृत्तानि भूतानि स्वमनीषया। कृतं यस्माद्यमयति तद्वा यन्त्रमिति स्मृतम् ॥४ (Sama. Sutra. 31.4)</blockquote>Dr. V.R. Raghavan in his article “Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in Ancient India” describes that yantra is so called because it controls and directs according to a plan, the motions of things that act each according to its own nature.<ref name=":0" />

 

 

== Constituent elements of Yantra ==

== Constituent elements of Yantra ==

According to different texts we find various versions of the classification of yantras.

According to different texts we find various versions of the classification of yantras.

Bhojadeva classifies yantra mainly into three categories. They are:<blockquote>स्वयंवाहकमेकं स्यात्सकृत्प्रेर्यं तथापरम्। अन्यदन्तरितवाह्यं वाह्यमन्यत् त्वदूरतः ॥१० (Sama. Sutr. 31.10)</blockquote>स्वयंवाहकम् ॥ Svayamvahakam - That which is automatic and sakrt-prerakam (that which  

Bhojadeva in Samarangana Sutradhara classifies yantra mainly into three categories based on their characteristics. They are:<blockquote>स्वयंवाहकमेकं स्यात्सकृत्प्रेर्यं तथापरम्। अन्यदन्तरितवाह्यं वाह्यमन्यत् त्वदूरतः ॥१० (Sama. Sutr. 31.10)<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>

 

* '''स्वयंवाहकम् ॥ Svayamvahakam''' - That which is automatic and sakrt-prerakam (that which requires occasional propelling)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

arrow-thrower. It is placed behind a wall and it shoots arrows through

* '''अन्तरितवाह्यंम् ॥ Antarita vahyam''' - Where the principal of action or motor mechanism hidden or concealed from public view with the machine to be carried by another.

crevices in the wall. But the name signifies a fire-arm. .

* '''दूरतःवाह्यम् ॥ Duruta vahyam''' - The one which is really obscure (distant proximate) but carriagable from the place from which the machine acts.

Kautilya classifies mainly yantras used in warfare as Sthira (unmovable) and Chara (movable) yantras both of which are discussed in the succeeding sections.

Bahumukha : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leathercovered

Bhattasvamin quotes a shloka on yantras in general as of three kinds, Vyadhita, Bhrdmita and Bharayukta: the first acts by being pressed, the second by rotation and the third by its sheer weight.

 

and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

 

Visvasaghati : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to

 

the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a

 

man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and

 

the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

 

 

fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

== Related Texts ==

== Related Texts ==

Lanka, as a city built by Maya, is naturally more full of the yantras. The city, personified as a lady, has ''yantra-agara-stani,'' special chamber filled with yantras (as the breast) in Sundarakanda as follows<blockquote>ताम् रत्न वसन उपेताम् कोष्ठ आगार अवतंसकाम् | यन्त्र अगार स्तनीम् ऋद्धाम् प्रमदाम् इव भूषिताम् || ५-३-१८ (Rama. Sund. Kand. 5.3.18)</blockquote>Hanuman looked at the city of the demon king, whose darkness was dispelled by bright gems and mighty mansions as if it were a young maiden. The prosperous city was like a well decorated woman, adorned with ornaments having walls for her dress, the stables for her earrings, the armouries for her breasts.<ref>Valmiki Ramayana from [https://www.valmiki.iitk.ac.in/sloka?field_kanda_tid=5&language=dv&field_sarga_value=3 Gitasupersite]</ref>

Lanka, as a city built by Maya, is naturally more full of the yantras. The city, personified as a lady, has ''yantra-agara-stani,'' special chamber filled with yantras (as the breast) in Sundarakanda as follows<blockquote>ताम् रत्न वसन उपेताम् कोष्ठ आगार अवतंसकाम् | यन्त्र अगार स्तनीम् ऋद्धाम् प्रमदाम् इव भूषिताम् || ५-३-१८ (Rama. Sund. Kand. 5.3.18)</blockquote>Hanuman looked at the city of the demon king, whose darkness was dispelled by bright gems and mighty mansions as if it were a young maiden. The prosperous city was like a well decorated woman, adorned with ornaments having walls for her dress, the stables for her earrings, the armouries for her breasts.<ref>Valmiki Ramayana from [https://www.valmiki.iitk.ac.in/sloka?field_kanda_tid=5&language=dv&field_sarga_value=3 Gitasupersite]</ref>

In his account to Rama of the fortifications of Lanka, Hanuman in Yuddhakanda, describes that Lanka has four big gates and that each gate is furnished with strong and huge yantras that can hurl both arrows and stones (''Upala-yantras):''<blockquote>तत्रेषूपयन्त्राणि बलवन्ति महान्ति च | आगतम् पर सैन्यम् तैस् तत्र प्रतिनिवार्यते || ६-३-१२ (Rama. Yudd. Kand. 6.3.12)</blockquote><blockquote>द्वारेषु तासाम् चत्वारः सम्क्रमाः परम आयताः | यन्त्रैर् उपेता बहुभिर् महद्भिर् दृढ संधिभिः || ६-३-१६ (Rama. Yudd. Kand. 6.3.16)</blockquote>And over the moats are extensive draw-bridges which are controlled by numerous big yantras. Against the approach of the enemy forces there, the draw-bridges are protected by the aforesaid engines and the enemy-battalions are flung into the moats on every side. That such yantras were employed on the field is seen in a description of Kumbhakarna, where his giant figure striding the streets of Lanka is compared to a huge yantra that has been set up  <blockquote>उच्यन्ताम् वानराः सर्वे यन्त्रमेतत्समुच्छ्रितम् | (Rama. Yudd. Kand. 6.61.33)</blockquote>Thus there are many instances in Ramayana where yantras were greatly used in warfare and the technology was very advanced.  

In his account to Rama of the fortifications of Lanka, Hanuman in Yuddhakanda, describes that Lanka has four big gates and that each gate is furnished with strong and huge yantras that can hurl both arrows and stones (''Upala-yantras):''<blockquote>तत्रेषूपयन्त्राणि बलवन्ति महान्ति च | आगतम् पर सैन्यम् तैस् तत्र प्रतिनिवार्यते || ६-३-१२ (Rama. Yudd. Kand. 6.3.12)</blockquote><blockquote>द्वारेषु तासाम् चत्वारः सम्क्रमाः परम आयताः | यन्त्रैर् उपेता बहुभिर् महद्भिर् दृढ संधिभिः || ६-३-१६ (Rama. Yudd. Kand. 6.3.16)</blockquote>And over the moats are extensive draw-bridges which are controlled by numerous big yantras. Against the approach of the enemy forces there, the draw-bridges are protected by the aforesaid engines and the enemy-battalions are flung into the moats on every side. That such yantras were employed on the field is seen in a description of Kumbhakarna, where his giant figure striding the streets of Lanka is compared to a huge yantra that has been set up to kill the vanaras. <blockquote>उच्यन्ताम् वानराः सर्वे यन्त्रमेतत्समुच्छ्रितम् | (Rama. Yudd. Kand. 6.61.33)</blockquote>Thus there are many instances in Ramayana where yantras were greatly used in warfare and the technology was very advanced.  

=== Arthashastra ===

=== Arthashastra ===

The ''Arthasdstra'' of Kautilya is one of the books of culture which throw a flood of light on the particular epochs in which they arose. This being a treatise on statecraft, speaks of yantras in connection mainly with battles, but also with architecture to some extent. An early work, a theoretical treatise and a text of great reputation, the ''Arthashatra'' forms our most valuable document on the subject of yantras.

The ''Arthashastra'' of Kautilya is one of the books of culture which throw a flood of light on the particular time in which they arose. An ancient valuable treatise on statecraft, it speaks of yantras mainly in connection with battles, and with architecture to some extent.  

Before we come to its account of the main yantras of warfare, we shall note some of the other mechanical contrivances met with in Kautilya's work. In II. 5, he refers to a dugout, ''Bhumigriha,'' and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and withdrawn ( ''Yantra-yukta-sopdna).'' While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for finishing off enemies and unwant- ed persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple, from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to kill him instantly.  

The main yantras of warfare are discussed by Kautilya in the Ayudhagara adhyaya wholly devoted to armoury. However, other mechanical contrivances described by him pertain to construction of forts with restrictive secret passages, movable staircases, controlling animals like elephants, for protecting against unwanted intruders in many situations.

 

In II. 5, he refers to a dugout, ''Bhumigriha,'' and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and withdrawn ( ''Yantra-yukta-sopdna).'' While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for finishing off enemies and unwant- ed persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple, from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to kill him instantly.  

== Yantras for Warfare ==

== Yantras for Warfare ==

Yantras for actual warfare are general)}' touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-manceuvres for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defence-erections.

Yantras for actual warfare are general)}' touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-manceuvres for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defence-erections.

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhdgara, 11.1S,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras. Kautilya divides the yantras into sta- tionary and mobile—''Sthira'' and ''Cala yantras.'' The former class comprises :—

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhdgara, 11.1S,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras.

 

Kautilya divides the yantras into stationary and mobile - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" />

 

=== Sthira Yantras ===

 

 

 

Visvasaghati : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

 

 

 

 

''Sarvatobhadra :'' According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin0, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called ''Siddhabhumirika-yantra'' and scatters small stones.  

Urdhvabdhu is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death.

''Jamadagniya :'' Bhattasvamin explains it as a big ''Sara-yantra'' or mechan- ical arrow-thrower. It is placed behind a wall and it shoots arrows through crevices in the wall. But the name signifies a fire-arm. .  

Ardhabahu is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.

''Pdncdlika.'' Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.  

Devadandas are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name also, Pratitaroca.

• ,J ''_Devadandas'' _{are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet} walls.' Bhattasvamin gives them another name also, ''Pratitaroca.''

Sukarika is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, on this view, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-sealer from getting a foothold.

Musala and Yashti-are well-known; Hastivaraka is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, Hastiparigha, for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

''Musala'' and ''Yashti-are'' well-known'; Hastivaraka is interpreted as a two- or three-pronged iron rod, ''Hastiparigha,'' for'striking at elephants','but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's ''Avantisundari,'' a machine which hurls-heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants..

A ''Tdlavrinta'' mentioned is5 explained as a- ''Vdlacakra,'' the significance of which is obscure. We may suggest that here was a device to create 'a tempest Which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of PhilostratuV; relating to Alexander's invasion of India; that Indians drive the-enemy off "'by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven," 10 may, however, be only an-echo of the epic ''Vdyavya-astra.'' " - - • -

A Talavrinta mentioned is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. We may suggest that here was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India; that Indians drive the enemy off 'by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven," may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

After ''Mudgara, Gadd, Sphriklala,'' a picked missile, and ''Kuddala,'' are mentioned in the following:— , •

After Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala, a picked missile, and Kuddala, are mentioned in the following:—

''Asphotima'' has four feet, is covered.by hide, has a projectile and. throws stones, , .  

Asphotima has four feet, is covered.by hide, has a projectile and throws stones.

''Udghdtima'is'' a machine which demolishes,walls with the.iron bars fitted  

Udghdtima is a machine which demolishes,walls with the.iron bars fitted to it.

''loit:. -'' - •" • . 5-« " ' . J . ' ''^ "-',-'•'' -._./ ''JJtp5.\ima'' is interpreted as the ''Syena-yantra'' which uproots and tears up things., ,_' ' ' ' . • And before the ''Trisula'' and ''Cakra,'' which are known, there"o'ccurs the ''Sataghni,'' the tenticide, which is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion! 'Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical' thing 'with wheels,' placed on the parapet. . . . ;

Utpatima is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things.

Bhattasvamin quotes also a verse on yantras in general as of three.kinds, ''Vyadhita, Bhrdmita'' and ''Bhdrayukla'' : the first acts by being pressed, the second by rotation and the third by its sheer weight. The Jain Sutras, which may go back in their nucleus to Mauryan times and which attained their present form in the 6th century A.D., know these yantras. The ''Bhagavali Sutra'' gives a list of eight finalities one of which is the" last fight with huge stones thrown as missiles. u The same Sutra describes the war between Kiiniya and Chedaga where we have the expressions ''Mahdiild- kantaka-Sangrama'' and ''Ratha-musala-Sangrdma''; the correct construction of the first name is " a battle in which one is beset by the stone complex, " for the text itself elaborates that such a heavy stone-shower has been in operation that even if a blade of grass or a piece of wood, a leaf or at pebble struck one, one got the fright of a stone. The ''Ratha-musala'h'' described by the text as a mechanical chariot which ran about without horsesjDr driver and worked carnage in the enemy lines. 1. 3 ;.' *

And before the Trisula and Cakra, which are known, there occurs the Sataghni, the centicide, which is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

Till now we have been dealing with yantras having mainly the background of war. The yantras we shall now deal with are accessories of pleasure and entertainment, and more properly come under household fittings and' architectural engineering. Some of them=are for the reduction of human labour, some for sport and merriment,—toys and gadgets of-miscellaneous kinds for entertainment. "

The yantras we shall now deal with are accessories of pleasure and entertainment, and more properly come under household fittings and' architectural engineering. Some of them=are for the reduction of human labour, some for sport and merriment,—toys and gadgets of-miscellaneous kinds for entertainment. "  

We may begin'with Somadeva Suri, an encyclopaedic Jain writer," and.Tiis long.religious poem, the ''Yaiastilaka Campu,23'' written in South India in 949 A.D. In the first part of thework, Somadeva describes the hero resorting to the cool ''yantra-dhdrd-griha'' to spend the hot hours of the summer days. This park, fitted with mechanical" fountains, is appropriately called by the commentator ''Krilrima-megha-mandira,'' the artificial cloud-pavilion. It is erected in the dense garden in an area provided with many canals. There is the stream for watef sports in the midst of which" is a sandbank raised like a pavilion, provided with a water-bed, ''Sdtila'-tulika;'' nearby'are numerous vessels containing-fragrant water jtat'one end'here is an ''yantra-jala-dhdrd,'' a contrivance' p'roducingVari'arlf-s ficial-waterfall; the water is taken through" and thrown out'of the "mouth's of! figures of elephants, tigers, lions,'snakes,'etc: ' ' " > ''~"'1''

We may begin'with Somadeva Suri, an encyclopaedic Jain writer," and.Tiis long.religious poem, the ''Yaiastilaka Campu,23'' written in South India in 949 A.D. In the first part of thework, Somadeva describes the hero resorting to the cool ''yantra-dhdrd-griha'' to spend the hot hours of the summer days. This park, fitted with mechanical" fountains, is appropriately called by the commentator ''Krilrima-megha-mandira,'' the artificial cloud-pavilion. It is erected in the dense garden in an area provided with many canals. There is the stream for watef sports in the midst of which" is a sandbank raised like a pavilion, provided with a water-bed, ''Sdtila'-tulika;'' nearby'are numerous vessels containing-fragrant water jtat'one end'here is an ''yantra-jala-dhdrd,'' a contrivance' p'roducingVari'arlf-s ficial-waterfall; the water is taken through" and thrown out'of the "mouth's of! figures of elephants, tigers, lions,'snakes,'etc: ' ' " > ''~"'1''