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The Rgveda refers to five planets as deities, out of which it mentions Brhaspati (Jupiter) and Vena (Venus) by name.<ref name=":0" />

The study of the five planets, that were known in the vedic period, came to be included within the scope of astronomy  in the post-vedic period. And astronomy began to be studied as a science for its own sake outgrowing its original purpose of providing a calendar for the performance of Vedic yajnas.

अमी ये पञ्चोक्षणो मध्ये तस्थुर्महो दिवः । देवत्रा नु प्रवाच्यं सध्रीचीना नि वावृतुर्वित्तं मे अस्य रोदसी ॥१०॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AB Sukta 105].</ref> Rg. 1.105.10

It also studied the motion of the planets in various zodiacal signs under different velocities called gatis (viz. very fast, fast, mean, slow, very slow, retrograde, very retrograde, and re-retrograde) along their varying paths called vithis.

बृहस्पतिः प्रथमं जायमानो महो ज्योतिषः परमे व्योमन् । सप्तास्यस्तुविजातो रवेण वि सप्तरश्मिरधमत्तमांसि ॥४॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 4, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AA.%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A6 Sukta 50].</ref> Rg. 4.50.4

The synodic motion of a planet, called grahachara, was elaborately recorded in the astrological works particularly the samhitas, the earlier works of the Jainas, the earlier puranas, and the earlier siddhantas such as the Vasishthasiddhanta and the Paulishasiddhanta. Analysis of these records led to the evolution of a few crude methods and empirical formulae to get the longitudes of the planets. Later, a systematic theory was established giving

अयं वेनश्चोदयत्पृश्निगर्भा ज्योतिर्जरायू रजसो विमाने । इममपां संगमे सूर्यस्य शिशुं न विप्रा मतिभी रिहन्ति ॥१॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 10, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 123].</ref> Rg. 10.123.1

rise to the astronomy of the later Siddhantas.<ref name=":0" />

अथ मन्थिनं गृह्णाति । अयं वेनश्चोदयत्पृश्निगर्भा ज्योतिर्जरायू रजसो विमाने इममपां संगमे सूर्यस्य शिशुं न विप्रा मतिभी रिहन्ति उपयामगृहीतोऽसि मर्काय त्वेति - ४.२.१.[१०]<ref>Shatapatha brahmana, Kanda 4, Adhyaya 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AA/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A5%A7 Brahmana 1].</ref> Shat. brah. 4.2.1

The Rgveda refers to five planets as deities, out of which it mentions Brhaspati (Jupiter) and Vena (Venus) by name.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>अमी ये पञ्चोक्षणो मध्ये तस्थुर्महो दिवः । देवत्रा नु प्रवाच्यं सध्रीचीना नि वावृतुर्वित्तं मे अस्य रोदसी ॥१०॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AB Sukta 105].</ref> Rg. 1.105.10</blockquote><blockquote>बृहस्पतिः प्रथमं जायमानो महो ज्योतिषः परमे व्योमन् । सप्तास्यस्तुविजातो रवेण वि सप्तरश्मिरधमत्तमांसि ॥४॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 4, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AA.%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A6 Sukta 50].</ref> Rg. 4.50.4</blockquote><blockquote>अयं वेनश्चोदयत्पृश्निगर्भा ज्योतिर्जरायू रजसो विमाने । इममपां संगमे सूर्यस्य शिशुं न विप्रा मतिभी रिहन्ति ॥१॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 10, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 123].</ref> Rg. 10.123.1</blockquote><blockquote>अथ मन्थिनं गृह्णाति । अयं वेनश्चोदयत्पृश्निगर्भा ज्योतिर्जरायू रजसो विमाने इममपां संगमे सूर्यस्य शिशुं न विप्रा मतिभी रिहन्ति उपयामगृहीतोऽसि मर्काय त्वेति - ४.२.१.[१०]<ref>Shatapatha brahmana, Kanda 4, Adhyaya 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AA/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A5%A7 Brahmana 1].</ref> Shat. brah. 4.2.1</blockquote>Shani (Saturn), Rahu (Moon's ascending node), and Ketu (Moon's descending node) are mentioned in the Maitrayani Upanishad 7.6<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>शनिराहुकेतूरगरक्षोयक्षनरविहगशरभेभादयोऽधस्तादुद्यन्ति तपन्ति वर्षन्ति स्तुवन्ति पुनर्विशन्ति अन्तर्विवरेणेक्षन्ति यः प्राज्ञो विधरणः सर्वान्तरोऽक्षरः शुद्धः पूतः भान्तः क्षान्तः शान्तः ॥ ७.६॥<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D Maitrayani Upanishad].</ref> Mait. Upan. 7.6</blockquote>It also mentions 34 lights which, in all probability, are the Sun, the Moon, the 5 planets and the 27 nakshatras (Rg 10.55.3)<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>आ रोदसी अपृणादोत मध्यं पञ्च देवाँ ऋतुशः सप्तसप्त । चतुस्त्रिंशता पुरुधा वि चष्टे सरूपेण ज्योतिषा विव्रतेन ॥३॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 10, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%AB Sukta 55].</ref> Rg. 10.55.3.</blockquote>The Rgveda describes the Sun as the sole light-giver of the universe, the cause of the seasons, the controller and the lord of the world.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>एक एवाग्निर्बहुधा समिद्ध एकः सूर्यो विश्वमनु प्रभूतः । एकैवोषाः सर्वमिदं वि भात्येकं वा इदं वि बभूव सर्वम् ॥२॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 8, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AE.%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%AE Sukta 58].</ref> Rg. 8.58.2</blockquote><blockquote>त्रीणि जाना परि भूषन्त्यस्य समुद्र एकं दिव्येकमप्सु । पूर्वामनु प्र दिशं पार्थिवानामृतून्प्रशासद्वि दधावनुष्ठु ॥३॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%AF%E0%A5%AB Sukta 95].</ref> Rg. 1.95.3</blockquote><blockquote>सनेमि चक्रमजरं वि वावृत उत्तानायां दश युक्ता वहन्ति । सूर्यस्य चक्षू रजसैत्यावृतं तस्मिन्नार्पिता भुवनानि विश्वा ॥१४॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AC%E0%A5%AA Sukta 164].</ref> Rg. 1.164.14</blockquote>Aitareya brahmana 2.7 describes Sun as the cause of the wind.

The Moon is called Surya-rashmi ie. one which shines by sunlight (Taittiriya Samhita 3.4.7.1)<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>ऋताषाड् ऋतधामाग्निर् गन्धर्वस् तस्यौषधयो ऽप्सरस ऊर्जो नाम स इदम् ब्रह्म क्षत्रम् पातु ता इदम् ब्रह्म क्षत्रम् पान्तु तस्मै स्वाहा ताभ्यः स्वाहा सꣳहितो विश्वसामा सूर्यो गन्धर्वस् तस्य मरीचयो ऽप्सरस आयुवः सुषुम्नः सूर्यरश्मिश् चन्द्रमा गन्धर्वस् तस्य नक्षत्राण्य् अप्सरसो बेकुरयः । भुज्युः सुपर्णो यज्ञो गन्धर्वस् तस्य दक्षिणा अप्सरस स्तवाः प्रजापतिर् विश्वकर्मा मनः<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref> Tait. Samh. 3.4.7.1.</blockquote>According to the Taittiriya brahmana 3.1.1, "Jupiter when born was first visible in the nakshatra Tishya (Pushya).<ref name=":0">Kolachana, Aditya & Mahesh, Kaluva & Ramasubramanian, K.. (2019). Main characteristics and achievements of ancient Indian astronomy in historical perspective. 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_24. </ref><ref name=":1">Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1].</ref><blockquote>बृहस्पतिः प्रथमं जायमानः । तिष्यं नक्षत्रमभि संबभूव ।<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Moon is called Surya-rashmi ie. one which shines by sunlight (Taittiriya Samhita 3.4.7.1)<ref name=":0" />

 

ऋताषाड् ऋतधामाग्निर् गन्धर्वस् तस्यौषधयो ऽप्सरस ऊर्जो नाम स इदम् ब्रह्म क्षत्रम् पातु ता इदम् ब्रह्म क्षत्रम् पान्तु तस्मै स्वाहा ताभ्यः स्वाहा सꣳहितो विश्वसामा सूर्यो गन्धर्वस् तस्य मरीचयो ऽप्सरस आयुवः सुषुम्नः सूर्यरश्मिश् चन्द्रमा गन्धर्वस् तस्य नक्षत्राण्य् अप्सरसो बेकुरयः । भुज्युः सुपर्णो यज्ञो गन्धर्वस् तस्य दक्षिणा अप्सरस स्तवाः प्रजापतिर् विश्वकर्मा मनः<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref> Tait. Samh. 3.4.7.1.

 

According to the Taittiriya brahmana 3.1.1, "Jupiter when born was first visible in the nakshatra Tishya (Pushya).<ref name=":0">Kolachana, Aditya & Mahesh, Kaluva & Ramasubramanian, K.. (2019). Main characteristics and achievements of ancient Indian astronomy in historical perspective. 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_24. </ref><ref name=":1">Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1].</ref>

 

बृहस्पतिः प्रथमं जायमानः । तिष्यं नक्षत्रमभि संबभूव ।<ref name=":1" />

== References ==

== References ==

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