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Line 170: − == Unity in Indian Sadhana == − Thus we see that all Indian shastras agreed upon the general principles of ethical conduct which must be followed for the attainment of salvation. There are indeed divergences in certain details or technical names, but the means to be adopted for purification are almost same as those advocated by the Yoga system. It is in later times that devotion (भक्तिः ।bhakti) is seen to occupy a more prominent place specially in Vaishnava schools of thought. Thus, although many differences are seen among the various shastras, yet their goal of life, their attitude towards the world and means for the attainment of the goal (साधना । sadhana) fundamentally being the same, advocates a unique unity in the practical sadhana of almost all the Indian philosophical schools of thought. The religious craving has been universal in India and this uniformity of sadhana has therefore secured for India a unity in all her aspirations and strivings.<ref name=":12" /> − − + Line 214:
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→Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta: adding content
|Charvakas (चार्वाकः)
|Charvakas (चार्वाकः)
|Svabhavavada (स्वभाववादः)
|Svabhavavada (स्वभाववादः)
| rowspan="4" |Paramanuvada : Matter is only an aggregate of atoms.
| rowspan="4" |Paramanuvada (परमाणुवादः) : Matter is described as an aggregate of atoms (परमाणु).
|-
|-
|Hinayana Buddhism (हीनयानबौद्धमतम्)
|Hinayana Buddhism (हीनयानबौद्धमतम्)
Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified the Self shines in its true light and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. Self at this stage ultimately dissociates from ''Chitta'', which is the root of all emotions, ideas and actions. Thus, emancipated the self forever conquers all sorrow.<ref name=":12" />
Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified the Self shines in its true light and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. Self at this stage ultimately dissociates from ''Chitta'', which is the root of all emotions, ideas and actions. Thus, emancipated the self forever conquers all sorrow.<ref name=":12" />
== Brief Description of Shad Darshanas ==
== Brief Description of Shad Darshanas ==
Here we attempt to give a brief outline about the six schools of Indian philosophy. We see that each school has its own characteristic points (such as Mahat and Ahamkara of Sankhya, Padarthas of Vaiseshika etc) all the while presenting arguments in agreement with and refuting some of their principles.
Here we attempt to give a brief outline about the six schools of Indian philosophy. It may be noted that all the topics will be covered in a detailed manner under respective individual headings. We see that each school has its own characteristic points (such as Mahat and Ahamkara of Sankhya, Padarthas of Vaiseshika etc) all the while presenting arguments in agreement with and refuting some of their principles.
=== Nyaya and Vaiseshika Darshanas ===
=== Nyaya and Vaiseshika Darshanas ===
=== Purva Mimamsa ===
=== Purva Mimamsa ===
Represented primarily by the Sutras of Jaimini, it consists of 12 adhyayas divided into 60 padas (quarters or sections). It considers about a thousand topics so that is by far the biggest of the philosophic sutras and probably oldest among them. Earliest available commentary is by Shavara and this shastra has been explained in two somewhat different ways by Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara otherwise known as Guru.
Of the seven padarthas formulated in the Nyaya-Vaiseshika theories, the Mimamsa accepts five of them. This philosophy holds that existents like substance and attribute or the particular and the universal are not totally distinct, but distinct while being the same. The relation between them are termed Bhedabheda. Kumarila Bhatta's siddhanta is given briefly here for a general understanding of the Mimamsa school of thought.
'''Kumarila Bhatta Siddhanta :''' The ultimate particles he postulates of the four elements - earth, water, fire, and air - are not indivisible and possess finite magnitude so that they are not strictly atomic at all. Whole and parts are not accordingly absolutely distinct, but distinct while being same. Like the Nyaya-Vaiseshika, this system also postulates 24 qualities but with a few modifications. Mimamsa system accepts six pramanas including perception, inference and verbal testimony apart from the three accepted by Kumarila namely - Comparison (Upamana) Presumption (arthapatti) and Non-apprehension (anupalabdhi). Kumarila primarily advocates that all things are positive from their own standpoint but negative from that of others (Sadasadatmaka).
According to him, who recognizes no God, the Veda is valid, because knowledge and validity is inherent in it. The central features of the Mimamsa view of the Vedas are taken to teach only truth because
* it is self-existent or eternal
* the scope of teaching is confined to supersensuous matters beyond the reach of common human experience.
* it includes portions requiring to be interpreted not literally but liberally.
An few important differences between the two schools of Mimamsa (Kumarila's and Prabhakara's) are given as follows
'''Anupalabdhi pramana'''
* Kumarila holds that the absolute non-existence of an object may be deduced by Anupalabdhi pramana. This is the significance of 'non-apprehension' as a separate pramana for knowing what are called 'negative facts' (abhava). Thus the recognition of this pramana implies the recognition of "non-existence" (abhava) as a separate category.
* Prabhakara explains every form of non-existence in a positive manner. Thus they represent a table as the "mutual non-existence" of the chair and the piece of wood out of which it is made as its "prior non-existence". Thus this school rejects non-apprehension or Anupalabdhi and accepts only the remaining five pramanas.
'''Acceptance of Samavaya relationship'''
* Acceptance of Samavaya (the relationship between whole and part) implies that the Prabhakaras regard the substance and attribute, parts and whole, as quite different and do not form an identity in difference (tadatmya) as Kumarila holds.
'''Explanation of Error'''
* Kumarila's explanation of error is nearly the same as Nyaya-Vaiseshika. He admits that in error, knowledge partly strays from reality and misrepresents it (anyatha-khyati).
* Prabhakara's explanation substitutes Kumarila's positive view of error to a negative one. He explains error as one of omission (akhyati) and not as one of commission (anyatha-khyati).<ref name=":32" />
=== Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta ===
The final systematization of the teachings of Upanishads, called Vedanta, signify the settled conclusions of the Vedas taken as a whole. This philosophy thus combines in one harmonious whole the results attained by all previous orthodox thinkers, and is therefore looked upon as the most perfect expression of Indian thought. The oldest form is seen as Sutras of Badarayana called commonly as Vedanta Sutras, is cryptic and it consists of four chapters, each divided into four padas (sections). In the current view the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita, and Vedanta Sutras of Badarayana constitute the triple basis of the Vedanta. Due to its cryptic nature and ambiguity several interpretations of it have arisen.
== Unity in Indian Sadhana ==
Thus we see that all Indian shastras agreed upon the general principles of ethical conduct which must be followed for the attainment of salvation. There are indeed divergences in certain details or technical names, but the means to be adopted for purification are almost same as those advocated by the Yoga system. It is in later times that devotion (भक्तिः ।bhakti) is seen to occupy a more prominent place specially in Vaishnava schools of thought. Thus, although many differences are seen among the various shastras, yet their goal of life, their attitude towards the world and means for the attainment of the goal (साधना । sadhana) fundamentally being the same, advocates a unique unity in the practical sadhana of almost all the Indian philosophical schools of thought. The religious craving has been universal in India and this uniformity of sadhana has therefore secured for India a unity in all her aspirations and strivings.<ref name=":12" />
==References==
==References==
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