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The Six Darsanas  or Shad Darshanas (Samskrit : षड्दर्शनानि) are the intellectual and philosophical discussions of Bharatiya shastras. Indian Philosophy has been intensely spiritual and has always emphasized on practical realization of truth as against the Western Philosophy which is essentially an intellectual quest for truth.     

The Six Darsanas  or Shad Darshanas (Samskrit : षड्दर्शनानि) are the intellectual and philosophical discussions of Bharatiya shastras. Indian Philosophy has been intensely spiritual and has always emphasized on practical realization of truth as against the Western Philosophy which is essentially an intellectual quest for truth.     

== Etymology ==

== Etymology ==

The word '<nowiki/>''philosophy''<nowiki/>' means 'love of learning'. It signifies a natural and necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in which they 'live and move and have their being'. The word '''darshana''<nowiki/>' means 'vision' and also the 'instrument of vision'. It stands for the direct, intermediate and intuitive vision of Reality, the actual perception of Truth, and also includes the means which lead to this Realization.<ref name=":2">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962). ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' USA: Barnes & Noble, Inc.</ref>

The word '<nowiki/>''philosophy''<nowiki/>' means 'love of learning'. It signifies a natural and necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in which they 'live and move and have their being'. The word '''darshana''<nowiki/>' means 'vision' and also the 'instrument of vision'. It stands for the direct, intermediate and intuitive vision of Reality, the actual perception of Truth, and also includes the means which lead to this Realization.<ref name=":22">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962). ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' USA: Barnes & Noble, Inc.</ref>

 

Brhdaranyaka Upanishad describes the fundamental concept of Atma (आत्मा ) during [[Yajnavalkya Maitreyi samvada (याज्ञवल्क्यमैत्रेय्योः संवादः)|Yajnavalkya Maitreyi Samvada]] as follows <blockquote>साक्षात् मोक्षसाधनानि इमानि आत्मा वा अरे द्रष्टव्यः श्रोतव्यो मन्तव्यो निदिध्यासितव्यः । - बृहदारण्यकोपनिषत् २-४-५  </blockquote>आत्मा वा अरे द्रष्टव्यः । See the Self is the keynote of all schools of Bharatiya Darshana Shastras.  And this is also the reason why most of these schools are also religious sects.<ref name=":2" />

== Origin of Darshanas ==

== Origin of Darshanas ==

The origin of Indian Philosophy, easily traced in the Vedas, has developed as an autonomous system practically unaffected by external influences.<ref name=":2" />  

The origin of Indian Philosophy, easily traced in the Vedas, has developed as an autonomous system practically unaffected by external influences.<ref name=":22" />

The closing period of the Samhitas witness the conception of a single creator and controller of the Universe, variously called Prajapati, Visvakarman, Purusha, Hiranyagarbha, Brahmanaspati and Brahman. But this divine controller was yet only a deity and the quest to know the nature of this deity began in the Upanishads.<ref name=":1" />

The closing period of the Samhitas witness the conception of a single creator and controller of the Universe, variously called Prajapati, Visvakarman, Purusha, Hiranyagarbha, Brahmanaspati and Brahman. But this divine controller was yet only a deity and the quest to know the nature of this deity began in the Upanishads.<ref name=":12" />

The Aranyakas mark the transition from the ritualistic (Karma-kanda) to the philosophic thought (Jnana-kanda). Here a mystic interpretation of the Vedic Yajnas is seen, which represent the prototype of philosophical thought processes.<ref name=":2" /> Aranyakas presented the ideas of symbolic forms of worship (pratika) and Prana (vital breath) was regarded as the most essential function for the life of man. This recognition of the superiority of Prana brought about a focus on the meditations on Prana as Brahman. However, though meditation took the place of yajnas, it was hardly adequate for the highest attainment of Brahman. Sages long accustomed to worship deities of visible manifestation could not easily dispense with the idea of seeking after a positive and definite content of Brahman. Nature of Brahman was unclear, for they had only a dim and dreamy vision of it in the deep craving of their souls which could not be translated into permanent terms. But this spark led them on the quest to understand the Brahman, and they found that by whatever means they tried to give a positive and definite content to the Ultimate Reality, Brahman, they failed. Yajnavalkya Maharshi conceptualized the Neti Neti philosophy and said "He the Atman is not this, nor this. He is inconceivable, unchangeable, untouched." Thus, it may be understood that we cannot describe Brahman by any positive content which is always limited by conceptual thought.  

The Aranyakas mark the transition from the ritualistic (Karma-kanda) to the philosophic thought (Jnana-kanda). Here a mystic interpretation of the Vedic Yajnas is seen, which represent the prototype of philosophical thought processes.<ref name=":22" /> Aranyakas presented the ideas of symbolic forms of worship (pratika) and Prana (vital breath) was regarded as the most essential function for the life of man. This recognition of the superiority of Prana brought about a focus on the meditations on Prana as Brahman. However, though meditation took the place of yajnas, it was hardly adequate for the highest attainment of Brahman. Sages long accustomed to worship deities of visible manifestation could not easily dispense with the idea of seeking after a positive and definite content of Brahman. Nature of Brahman was unclear, for they had only a dim and dreamy vision of it in the deep craving of their souls which could not be translated into permanent terms. But this spark led them on the quest to understand the Brahman, and they found that by whatever means they tried to give a positive and definite content to the Ultimate Reality, Brahman, they failed. Yajnavalkya Maharshi conceptualized the Neti Neti philosophy and said "He the Atman is not this, nor this. He is inconceivable, unchangeable, untouched." Thus, it may be understood that we cannot describe Brahman by any positive content which is always limited by conceptual thought.  

The fundamental idea which runs through the early Upanishads is that beneath the exterior world of change there is an unchangeable reality which is identical with that which underlies the essence on man (Brhd. Upan. 4.4.5.22).  The sum and substance of the Upanishad teaching is involved in the equation Atman = Brahman. It may be noted that Atman was used in the Rig Veda to denote both the ultimate essence of the Universe and also the vital breath in man. Upanishads however, use the word Brahman to denote the ultimate essence of the Universe and Atman is reserved to denote the innermost essence in man and Upanishads emphatically declare that the two are one and the same.  

The fundamental idea which runs through the early Upanishads is that beneath the exterior world of change there is an unchangeable reality which is identical with that which underlies the essence on man (Brhd. Upan. 4.4.5.22).  The sum and substance of the Upanishad teaching is involved in the equation Atman = Brahman. It may be noted that Atman was used in the Rig Veda to denote both the ultimate essence of the Universe and also the vital breath in man. Upanishads however, use the word Brahman to denote the ultimate essence of the Universe and Atman is reserved to denote the innermost essence in man and Upanishads emphatically declare that the two are one and the same.  

Upon this foundation of the Upanishads, principal systems of philosophy developed with systematic treatises being written in short pregnant half sentences called Sutras, which did not elaborate the subject, but were intended for those who had direct elaborate oral instructions on the subject.<ref name=":1" />  

Upon this foundation of the Upanishads, principal systems of philosophy developed with systematic treatises being written in short pregnant half sentences called Sutras, which did not elaborate the subject, but were intended for those who had direct elaborate oral instructions on the subject.<ref name=":12" />

== Systematization of Darshanas ==

== Systematization of Darshanas ==

It can be seen that the spirit of philosophical enquiry, although had begun in the days of the earliest Upanishads, had continued even in circles other than those of the Upanishads. The Buddha and Jaina activities were also probably happening concurrently as no reference to them is seen in the Upanishads. Thus, it can be said that there were different forms of philosophical inquiry in spheres other than those of the Upanishads, of which we have but scanty records. In the assemblies of the sages and their pupils, the views of the heretical or heterodox thinkers were probably discussed and refuted. So it may have continued until some illustrious member of the assembly such as Gautama or Kanada collected the purport of these discussions on various topics and problems, filled up many of the missing links, classified and arranged these on the form of a system of philosophy and recorded it in '''Sutras'''.<ref name=":1" /> Thus, the object of these treatises, whether Astika or Nastika Darshanas, is three-fold   

It can be seen that the spirit of philosophical enquiry, although had begun in the days of the earliest Upanishads, had continued even in circles other than those of the Upanishads. The Buddha and Jaina activities were also probably happening concurrently as no reference to them is seen in the Upanishads. Thus, it can be said that there were different forms of philosophical inquiry in spheres other than those of the Upanishads, of which we have but scanty records. In the assemblies of the sages and their pupils, the views of the heretical or heterodox thinkers were probably discussed and refuted. So it may have continued until some illustrious member of the assembly such as Gautama or Kanada collected the purport of these discussions on various topics and problems, filled up many of the missing links, classified and arranged these on the form of a system of philosophy and recorded it in '''Sutras'''.<ref name=":12" /> Thus, the object of these treatises, whether Astika or Nastika Darshanas, is three-fold   

# To consolidate the teaching of the particular school to which they belong.   

# To consolidate the teaching of the particular school to which they belong.   

# To criticize others where they diverge from a particular school.   

# To criticize others where they diverge from a particular school.   

# To defend and uphold the school to which they belonged by putting forth references, explanations and interpretations in the form of commentaries.   

# To defend and uphold the school to which they belonged by putting forth references, explanations and interpretations in the form of commentaries.   

Such was the high esteem and respect in which these writers of the Sutras were held by later day writers that whenever they had any new speculations to offer, these were reconciled with the doctrines of one or other of the existing systems, and put down as faithful interpretations of the system in the form of '''Commentaries'''.<ref name=":1" /> Thus, the literature of each school of Philosophy consists of its own Sutra with commentaries and super-commentaries upon it, as also of certain independent treatises (prakarana) which expound the doctrine as a whole with a view to aid beginners, or discuss one or more aspects of it from the standpoint of the advanced student. The chief sign of systematization is seen in the analysis of the nature and function of knowledge or to the problems of what and how we know. A common feature of all the systems is that they involve, if they do not actually start with, an investigation of '''Pramanas'''.   

Such was the high esteem and respect in which these writers of the Sutras were held by later day writers that whenever they had any new speculations to offer, these were reconciled with the doctrines of one or other of the existing systems, and put down as faithful interpretations of the system in the form of '''Commentaries'''.<ref name=":12" /> Thus, the literature of each school of Philosophy consists of its own Sutra with commentaries and super-commentaries upon it, as also of certain independent treatises (prakarana) which expound the doctrine as a whole with a view to aid beginners, or discuss one or more aspects of it from the standpoint of the advanced student. The chief sign of systematization is seen in the analysis of the nature and function of knowledge or to the problems of what and how we know. A common feature of all the systems is that they involve, if they do not actually start with, an investigation of '''Pramanas'''.   

Pramana is defined as the proximate means to valid knowledge or ''prama''. They are usually regarded as a help not only in acquiring new knowledge, but also in verifying what is already known, so that logic as conceived in Bharatavarsha, is a science both of proof and of discovery. A Pramana, like perception, may reveal the existence and nature of things not hitherto known. It may also be the means of verification, as when an object apprehended by the organ of sight is tested by means of touch or whena doubt arising in respect of something inferred is cleared by actual observation. There is much divergence of opinion among Indian thinkers concerning the number of pramanas accepted among the schools. The number of pramanas they accept range from one to six in general categorized under [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)]].   

Pramana is defined as the proximate means to valid knowledge or ''prama''. They are usually regarded as a help not only in acquiring new knowledge, but also in verifying what is already known, so that logic as conceived in Bharatavarsha, is a science both of proof and of discovery. A Pramana, like perception, may reveal the existence and nature of things not hitherto known. It may also be the means of verification, as when an object apprehended by the organ of sight is tested by means of touch or whena doubt arising in respect of something inferred is cleared by actual observation. There is much divergence of opinion among Indian thinkers concerning the number of pramanas accepted among the schools. The number of pramanas they accept range from one to six in general categorized under [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)]].   

Such was the hold of these systems upon scholars that all the orthodox teachers belonged to one or the other of these schools since the foundation of the systems of philosophy. Their pupils were thus naturally brought up in accordance with the views of their teachers. All the independence of their thinking was limited and enchained by the faith of the school to which they were attached. Instead of seeing growth of free lance thinking and new theories, India brought forth schools of pupils who carried the traditional views of a particular school from generation to generation, who explained and defended them against the attacks of other rival schools, which they constantly attacked in order to establish the superiority of the system to which they adhere.<ref name=":1" /> For example, sutras of the Nyaya system of philosophy are attributed to Gautama, also called as Akshapada. The series of commentaries written by many adherents of this system, on these sutras, while conforming to the tradition yet showing novelty in thinking may be summarized as follows:   

Such was the hold of these systems upon scholars that all the orthodox teachers belonged to one or the other of these schools since the foundation of the systems of philosophy. Their pupils were thus naturally brought up in accordance with the views of their teachers. All the independence of their thinking was limited and enchained by the faith of the school to which they were attached. Instead of seeing growth of free lance thinking and new theories, India brought forth schools of pupils who carried the traditional views of a particular school from generation to generation, who explained and defended them against the attacks of other rival schools, which they constantly attacked in order to establish the superiority of the system to which they adhere.<ref name=":12" /> For example, sutras of the Nyaya system of philosophy are attributed to Gautama, also called as Akshapada. The series of commentaries written by many adherents of this system, on these sutras, while conforming to the tradition yet showing novelty in thinking may be summarized as follows:   

* Vatsyayana composed the earliest commentary on Gautama sutras, called as ''Vatsyayana Bhashya''. This was sharply criticized by Buddhist Dinnaga.   

* Vatsyayana composed the earliest commentary on Gautama sutras, called as ''Vatsyayana Bhashya''. This was sharply criticized by Buddhist Dinnaga.   

* Udyotakara wrote a commentary on this commentary called ''Bhashyavattika'', including the answers to Dinnaga's criticisms.   

* Udyotakara wrote a commentary on this commentary called ''Bhashyavattika'', including the answers to Dinnaga's criticisms.   

* Padmanabha Misra wrote a commentary called ''Varddhamanendu'' on Varddhamana's commentary.   

* Padmanabha Misra wrote a commentary called ''Varddhamanendu'' on Varddhamana's commentary.   

* Sankara Misra wrote another commentary on this called ''Nyaya-tatparyamandana''.   

* Sankara Misra wrote another commentary on this called ''Nyaya-tatparyamandana''.   

The names Vatsyayana, Vachaspati and Udayana are indeed very great, but even they contented themselves by writing commentaries on commentaries, and did not try to formulate any original system. The contributions of the successive commentators served to make each system more complete and stronger to enable it to hold its own successfully against the opposition and attacks of the rival schools. Hence no study of the Indian philosophy is adequate without the study of commentaries which had kept it living through the ages of history.<ref name=":1" />  

The names Vatsyayana, Vachaspati and Udayana are indeed very great, but even they contented themselves by writing commentaries on commentaries, and did not try to formulate any original system. The contributions of the successive commentators served to make each system more complete and stronger to enable it to hold its own successfully against the opposition and attacks of the rival schools. Hence no study of the Indian philosophy is adequate without the study of commentaries which had kept it living through the ages of history.<ref name=":12" />

== Classification of Bharatiya Shastras ==

== Classification of Bharatiya Shastras ==

Traditionally Bharatiya shastras involving the systems of philosophy was divided into two classes:<ref name=":1">Dasgupta, Surendranath. (7th Reprint : 2012) A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

Traditionally Bharatiya shastras involving the systems of philosophy was divided into two classes:<ref name=":12">Dasgupta, Surendranath. (7th Reprint : 2012) A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

* Astika (अास्तिकः)

* Astika (अास्तिकः)

* Nastika (नास्तिकः)

* Nastika (नास्तिकः)

The term ''Astika'' comes from the Samskrit word Asti (अस्ति । there is) is defined as one that accepts the authority of the Vedas (sacred scriptures of ancient India). The ''Nastika'' (न अस्ति । it is not) views are those which neither regard the Vedas as infallible nor try to establish their own validity on their authority.     

The term ''Astika'' comes from the Samskrit word Asti (अस्ति । there is) is defined as one that accepts the authority of the Vedas (sacred scriptures of ancient India). The ''Nastika'' (न अस्ति । it is not) views are those which neither regard the Vedas as infallible nor try to establish their own validity on their authority.     

== अास्तिकदर्शनानि ॥ Astika Darshanas ==

== अास्तिकदर्शनानि ॥ Astika Darshanas ==

The term Astika (Samskrit : अास्तिकः) according to Vachaspatyam means अस्ति परलोक इति मतिर्यस्य । one who believes in the existence of paraloka (other worlds). Some schools of philosophy are based on the Vedas all of which proclaim the existence of other lokas (worlds), punarjanma (rebirth), existence of a supreme power etc.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51</ref> Six systems of the Indian philosophy called popularly as the Shad Darsanas are the Astika darshanas. They include:

The term Astika (Samskrit : अास्तिकः) according to Vachaspatyam means अस्ति परलोक इति मतिर्यस्य । one who believes in the existence of paraloka (other worlds). Some schools of philosophy are based on the Vedas all of which proclaim the existence of other lokas (worlds), punarjanma (rebirth), existence of a supreme power etc.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":02">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51</ref> Six systems of the Indian philosophy called popularly as the Shad Darsanas are the Astika darshanas. They include:

#  न्यायः || [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]] (Rishi Gautama)

#  न्यायः || [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]] (Rishi Gautama)

#  वैशेषिकः || [[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika]] (Rishi Kanada)

#  वैशेषिकः || [[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika]] (Rishi Kanada)

#  पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva [[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa]] (Jaimini)

#  पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva [[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa]] (Jaimini)

# उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa or वेदान्त || [[Vedanta]] (Badarayana or Vyasa) 

# उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa or वेदान्त || [[Vedanta]] (Badarayana or Vyasa) 

These are often grouped by twos, taken in order, since the are allied to each other. They last pair, (Poorva and Uttara Mimamsa, however, are not so closely akin in their theoretical aspects, according to a few scholars. They are the two schools which are directly based on the Veda. The remaining four schools, in their present form, declare allegiance to the Veda, but it is doubtful whether they were Vedic from the beginning of their history. Astika Darshanas regard the realm of being as by no means exhausted by common experience and acknowledges a unique ''pramana'' for knowing what lies beyond. It may be further divided into two classes <ref name=":3">Hiriyanna. M. (1949) ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy.'' London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd.</ref>

These are often grouped by twos, taken in order, since the are allied to each other. They last pair, (Poorva and Uttara Mimamsa, however, are not so closely akin in their theoretical aspects, according to a few scholars. They are the two schools which are directly based on the Veda. The remaining four schools, in their present form, declare allegiance to the Veda, but it is doubtful whether they were Vedic from the beginning of their history. Astika Darshanas regard the realm of being as by no means exhausted by common experience and acknowledges a unique ''pramana'' for knowing what lies beyond. It may be further divided into two classes <ref name=":32">Hiriyanna. M. (1949) ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy.'' London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd.</ref>

- one which believes that individual insight is ultimately adequate for a knowledge of the transcendental realm

- one which believes that individual insight is ultimately adequate for a knowledge of the transcendental realm

We find that Padma purana introduces these shastras in the following slokas<blockquote>कणादेन तु संप्रोक्तं शास्त्रं वैशेषिकं महत् । गौतमेन तथा न्यायं सांख्यं तु कपिलेन वै ॥ (Padm. Pura.6.236.4-5) <ref>Padma Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/पद्मपुराणम्/खण्डः_६_(उत्तरखण्डः)/अध्यायः_२३६ Kanda 6 Adhyaya 236])</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>kaṇādena tu saṃproktaṃ śāstraṃ vaiśeṣikaṃ mahat । gautamena tathā nyāyaṃ sāṃkhyaṃ tu kapilena vai ॥ </blockquote>Meaning : The Vaisheshika shastra has been elucidated by Kanada, while the Nyaya shastra was given by Gautama Rishi, and Samkhya shastra was by Kapila Rishi.

We find that Padma purana introduces these shastras in the following slokas<blockquote>कणादेन तु संप्रोक्तं शास्त्रं वैशेषिकं महत् । गौतमेन तथा न्यायं सांख्यं तु कपिलेन वै ॥ (Padm. Pura.6.236.4-5) <ref>Padma Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/पद्मपुराणम्/खण्डः_६_(उत्तरखण्डः)/अध्यायः_२३६ Kanda 6 Adhyaya 236])</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>kaṇādena tu saṃproktaṃ śāstraṃ vaiśeṣikaṃ mahat । gautamena tathā nyāyaṃ sāṃkhyaṃ tu kapilena vai ॥ </blockquote>Meaning : The Vaisheshika shastra has been elucidated by Kanada, while the Nyaya shastra was given by Gautama Rishi, and Samkhya shastra was by Kapila Rishi.

== नास्तिकदर्शनानि ॥ Nastika Darshanas ==

== नास्तिकदर्शनानि ॥ Nastika Darshanas ==

The three fundamental heterodox systems of philosophy are <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 186</ref>:

The three fundamental heterodox systems of philosophy are <ref name=":12" /><ref name=":32" /><ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 186</ref>:

# The Materialistic School of Charvaka

# The Materialistic School of Charvaka

# The System of the Jainas

# The System of the Jainas

# The Buddhistic System which can be classified further as follows:<ref name=":0" />

# The Buddhistic System which can be classified further as follows:<ref name=":02" />

#* The School of Presentationists or Vaibhashikas (Buddhistic)

#* The School of Presentationists or Vaibhashikas (Buddhistic)

#* The School of Representationists or Sautrantikas (Buddhistic)

#* The School of Representationists or Sautrantikas (Buddhistic)

#* The School of Idealism or Yogacharas (Buddhistic)

#* The School of Idealism or Yogacharas (Buddhistic)

#* The School of Nihilism or the Madhyamikas (Buddhistic).

#* The School of Nihilism or the Madhyamikas (Buddhistic).

The Nastika group asumes that reality is confined to what is given in common experience and is described as positivistic or empirical/ 

The Nastika group assumes that reality is confined to what is given in common experience and is described as positivistic or empirical in nature.   

When the term Shad Darsanas is employed, it means the six Astika Darsanas. In this article the six Astika systems of Indian Philosophy will be introduced.   

When the term Shad Darsanas is employed, it means the six Astika Darsanas. In this article the six Astika systems of Indian Philosophy will be introduced.   

== Fundamental Points of Agreement ==

== Fundamental Points of Agreement ==

The systems of philosophy in India were not stirred up merely by the speculative demands of the human mind which has a natural inclination for indulging in abstract thought, but by deep craving after the realization of the religious purpose of life.  It is to be noted that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems. It is remarkable that with the exception of the Charvaka materialists all the other systems agree on some fundamental points of importance, namely.  

The systems of philosophy in India were not stirred up merely by the speculative demands of the human mind which has a natural inclination for indulging in abstract thought, but by deep craving after the realization of the religious purpose of life.  It is to be noted that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems that have evolved. It is remarkable that with the exception of the Charvaka materialists all the other systems agree on some fundamental points of importance, namely.  

# Karma and Punarjana siddhanta  

# Karma and Punarjana siddhanta  

# Mukti siddhanta

# Mukti siddhanta

# Atma (Soul) siddhanta

# Atma (Soul) siddhanta

Whatever may be their differences of opinion in other matters, so far as the general postulates for the realization of the transcendent state were concerned, all systems were practically in thorough agreement.<ref name=":1" />  

Whatever may be their differences of opinion in other matters, so far as the general postulates for the realization of the transcendent state were concerned, all systems were practically in thorough agreement.<ref name=":12" />

Astika systems believed that the unseen (''adrusta'') potency of the action generally required some time before it could be fit for giving the doer the merited punishment or enjoyment. These would often accumulate and prepare the items of suffering and enjoyment for the doer in his next life. Only the fruits of those actions which are extremely wicked or particularly good could be reaped in this life.  

All the Indian shastras agree that whatever action is done by an individual leaves behind it some sort of potency which has the power to ordain for him joy or sorrow in the future accordingly as it is good or bad. When the fruits of the actions are such that they cannot be enjoyed in the present life or in human life, the individual has to take another birth as a man or any other being in order to suffer them. Proper observance of all ritualistic details during performance of yajnas was probably the earliest form of the Karma doctrine. Astika systems believed that the unseen (adrusta) potency of the action generally required some time before it could be fit for giving the doer the merited punishment or enjoyment. These would often accumulate and prepare the items of suffering and enjoyment for the doer in his next life. Only the fruits of those actions which are extremely wicked or particularly good could be reaped in this life.  

 

Man has had an infinite number of past lives of the most varied nature and the instincts of each kind of life exist dormant in the life of every individual and thus whenever he takes rebirth the special instincts of that life (called vasana) come forth. In accordance with these vasanas the person passes through the painful or pleasurable experiences as determined for him by his action. Such actions and experiences cannot be avoided but those actions which have not matured are uprooted once for all if the person attains true knowledge as advocated by philosophy. But even such an emancipated (mukta) person has to pass through the good or bad experiences ordained for him by the actions just ripened for giving their fruits. If in the meantime he attains true knowledge, all his past accumulated actions become destroyed, and as his acts are neither virtuous nor wicked, no fresh karma for ripening is accumulated and thus he becomes divested of all karma after enjoying the fruits of the ripened karmas alone. Thus, in the last stage of contemplation, all karma being annihilated, and all activities having ceased, the soul leaves the body and goes up to the top of the universe, where the liberated souls stay for ever.<ref name=":1" /> 

When the Indians, wearied by the endless bustle and turmoil of worldly events, sought for and believed that somewhere a peaceful goal could be found, they generally hit upon the Self of man.  

The belief that the soul could be realized in some stage as being permanently divested of all action, feelings or ideas, led logically to the conclusion that the connection of the soul with these worldly elements was extraneous, artificial or even illusory. In its true nature the soul is untouched by the impurities of our ordinary life, and it is through ignorance and passion as inherited from the cycle of karma from beginning-less time that we connect it with these. The realization of this transcendent state is the goal and final achievement of this endless cycle of births and rebirths through karma.<ref name=":12" />  

Karma leads us to the endless cycle and if we could divest ourselves of all emotions, ideas or desires as lead us to action we should find within us the actionless self which neither suffers nor enjoys, neither works nor undergoes rebirth. When the Indians, wearied by the endless bustle and turmoil of worldly events, sought for and believed that somewhere a peaceful goal could be found, they generally hit upon the Self of man. The belief that the soul could be realized in some stage as being permanently divested of all action, feelings or ideas, led logically to the conclusion that the connection of the soul with these worldly elements was extraneous, artificial or even illusory. In its true nature the soul is untouched by the impurities of our ordinary life, and it is through ignorance and passion as inherited from the cycle of karma from beginning-less time that we connect it with these. The realization of this transcendent state is the goal and final achievement of this endless cycle of births and rebirths through karma.<ref name=":1" />  

== Atma Siddhanta ==

== Atma Siddhanta ==

* Samkhya describes it as being of the nature of pure consciousness.

* Samkhya describes it as being of the nature of pure consciousness.

* Vedanta says that it is that fundamental point of unity implied in pure consciousness (chit), pure bliss (ananda) and pure being (sat).  

* Vedanta says that it is that fundamental point of unity implied in pure consciousness (chit), pure bliss (ananda) and pure being (sat).  

But all agree in holding that it is pure and unsullied in its nature and that all impurities of action or passion do not form a real part of it. When all impurities are removed and the pure nature of the self is thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other extraneous connections with it are absolutely dissociated.<ref name=":1" />

But all agree in holding that it is pure and unsullied in its nature and that all impurities of action or passion do not form a real part of it. When all impurities are removed and the pure nature of the self is thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other extraneous connections with it are absolutely dissociated.<ref name=":12" />

 

== Jnana ==

== Jnana ==

Though the belief that the world is full of sorrow has not been equally prominently emphasized in all systems, yet it may be considered as being shared by all of them. It finds its strongest utterance in Samkhya, Yoga and Buddhism. This interminable chain of pleasurable and painful experiences does not lead one to a peaceful end but embroiling and entangling us in the meshes of karma, rebirth,  and sorrow. All human experiences are essentially sorrowful and ultimately sorrow begetting.  Sorrow is the ultimate truth of this process of the world. That which to an ordinary person seems pleasurable appears to a wise person or to a yogi who has a clearer vision as painful. The greater the knowledge the higher is the sensitiveness to sorrow and dissatisfaction with world experiences. This sorrow of worldly experiences cannot be removed by bringing in remedies for each sorrow, nor be avoided by mere inaction or suicide. The only way to get rid of it is by the culmination of moral greatness and true knowledge (Jnana) which uproot sorrow once and for all. It is our ignorance that the self is intimately connected with the experiences of life or its pleasures, that leads us to action and arouses passion in us for the enjoyment of pleasures and other emotions and activities.   

Though the belief that the world is full of sorrow has not been equally prominently emphasized in all systems, yet it may be considered as being shared by all of them. It finds its strongest utterance in Samkhya, Yoga and Buddhism. This interminable chain of pleasurable and painful experiences does not lead one to a peaceful end but embroiling and entangling us in the meshes of karma, rebirth,  and sorrow. All human experiences are essentially sorrowful and ultimately sorrow begetting.  Sorrow is the ultimate truth of this process of the world. That which to an ordinary person seems pleasurable appears to a wise person or to a yogi who has a clearer vision as painful. The greater the knowledge the higher is the sensitiveness to sorrow and dissatisfaction with world experiences. This sorrow of worldly experiences cannot be removed by bringing in remedies for each sorrow, nor be avoided by mere inaction or suicide. The only way to get rid of it is by the culmination of moral greatness and true knowledge (Jnana) which uproot sorrow once and for all. It is our ignorance that the self is intimately connected with the experiences of life or its pleasures, that leads us to action and arouses passion in us for the enjoyment of pleasures and other emotions and activities.   

Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified the Self shines in its true light and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. Self at this stage ultimately dissociates from ''Chitta'', which is the root of all emotions, ideas and actions. Thus, emancipated the self forever conquers all sorrow.<ref name=":1" />  

Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified the Self shines in its true light and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. Self at this stage ultimately dissociates from ''Chitta'', which is the root of all emotions, ideas and actions. Thus, emancipated the self forever conquers all sorrow.<ref name=":12" />

 

== Unity in Indian Sadhana ==

== Unity in Indian Sadhana ==

Thus we see that all Indian shastras agreed upon the general principles of ethical conduct which must be followed for the attainment of salvation. There are indeed divergences in certain details or technical names, but the means to be adopted for purification are almost same as those advocated by the Yoga system. It is in later times that devotion (bhakti) is seen to occupy a more prominent place specially in Vaishnava schools of thought. Thus, although many differences are seen among the various shastras, yet their goal of life, their attitude towards the world and means for the attainment of the goal (sadhana) fundamentally being the same, advocates a unique unity in the practical sadhana of almost all the Indian philosophical schools of thought. The religious craving has been universal in India and this uniformity of sadhana has therefore secured for India a unity in all her aspirations and strivings.<ref name=":1" />

Thus we see that all Indian shastras agreed upon the general principles of ethical conduct which must be followed for the attainment of salvation. There are indeed divergences in certain details or technical names, but the means to be adopted for purification are almost same as those advocated by the Yoga system. It is in later times that devotion (bhakti) is seen to occupy a more prominent place specially in Vaishnava schools of thought. Thus, although many differences are seen among the various shastras, yet their goal of life, their attitude towards the world and means for the attainment of the goal (sadhana) fundamentally being the same, advocates a unique unity in the practical sadhana of almost all the Indian philosophical schools of thought. The religious craving has been universal in India and this uniformity of sadhana has therefore secured for India a unity in all her aspirations and strivings.<ref name=":12" />

 

== Samkhya and Yoga Darshanas ==

== Samkhya and Yoga Darshanas ==

==References==

==References==

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