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Vedanta (Samskrit: वेदांतम्) or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of the six darshanika schools of Sanatana Dharma.  Primarily the word Vedanta stood for [[Upanishads (उपनिषदाः)|Upanishads]]; afterwords, its scope widened to include all thoughts developed out of the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदाः)|Upanishads]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN PHILOSOPHY|last=Satischandra Chatterjee|first=Dhirendramohan Dutta|publisher=RUPA PUBLICATIONS INDIA PVT. LIMITED|year=2007|isbn=978-81-291-1195-1|location=|pages=317|via=}}</ref>. Vedanta, its denotation as understood and accepted by its major schools, refers to various philosophical traditions based on the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy, namely the Principal Upanishads, the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}

Vedanta (Samskrit: वेदांतम्) or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of the six darshanika schools of Sanatana Dharma.  Primarily the word Vedanta stood for [[Upanishads (उपनिषदाः)|Upanishads]]; afterwords, its scope widened to include all thoughts developed out of the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदाः)|Upanishads]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN PHILOSOPHY|last=Satischandra Chatterjee|first=Dhirendramohan Dutta|publisher=RUPA PUBLICATIONS INDIA PVT. LIMITED|year=2007|isbn=978-81-291-1195-1|location=|pages=317|via=}}</ref>. Vedanta, its denotation as understood and accepted by its major schools, refers to various philosophical traditions based on the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy, namely the Principal Upanishads, the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}

Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as Yoga and [[Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse traditions within it.<ref name=hajimenakamura3/><ref name=gavinfloodaith238/> There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} of which [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Dvaita]] and [[Bhedabheda]] are the best known.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}

Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as Yoga and [[Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse traditions within it.<ref name="hajimenakamura3">Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 3</ref><ref name="gavinfloodaith238">Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page 238</ref> There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} of which [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Dvaita]] and [[Bhedabheda]] are the best known.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}

==Etymology and Nomenclature==

==Etymology and Nomenclature==

The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' includes the class of writings under the heading Prasthana Trayi, namely The Upanishads, Brahmasutras and Bhagavadgita. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas. Vedanta literally means the ''end of the [[Vedas]]''<ref name=":0" />''.'' All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|last=Hiriyanna|first=M.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2008|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|location=Delhi|pages=19|via=}}</ref>. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:

The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' includes the class of writings under the heading Prasthana Trayi, namely The Upanishads, Brahmasutras and Bhagavadgita. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas. Vedanta literally means the ''end of the [[Vedas]]''<ref name=":0" />''.'' All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|last=Hiriyanna|first=M.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2008|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|location=Delhi|pages=19|via=}}</ref>. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:

===Shuddhādvaita===

===Shuddhādvaita===

[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple Proof Corpus (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of [[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2), Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>Brahmavād Saṅgraha, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>   

[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple Proof Corpus (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of [[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2), Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>Brahmavād Saṅgraha, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>   

===Advaita Vedānta===

===Advaita Vedānta===

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta"/>

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta"/>

===Neo-Vedanta===

== Discussion ==

 

 

Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interaction with and response to colonialism.{{sfn|King|2001}} With the onset of the [[British Raj]], the colonialisation of India by the British, there also started a [[Bengali renaissance|Hindu renaissance]] in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.{{sfn|King|2002}} Western [[Orientalism|orientalist]] searched for the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,{{sfn|King|2002|118}} and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis{{sfn|King|1999}} and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.{{sfn|King|1999}}{{sfn|King|2002}}

Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of metaphysics: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" Māyā in various orthodox Hindu schools. Māyā pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman – the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.

This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of [[Universalism in religion|Universalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]], the idea that all religions share a common [[Mysticism|mystic]] ground.{{sfn|King|2002|p==119-120}} The [[Brahmo Samaj]], who was supported for a while by the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian Church]],{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=114}} played an essential role in the introduction and spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.{{sfn|King|2002|p=123}} Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion".{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}

In addition to the concept of Brahman, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of Atman – or soul, self – which is also considered ultimately real. The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the dual and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from Brahman, or same as Brahman. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as distinct are theistic, and Dvaita Vedanta and later Nyaya schools illustrate this premise. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as same are monist or pantheistic, and Advaita Vedanta, later Samkhya and Yoga schools illustrate this metaphysical premise. In schools that equate Brahman with Atman, Brahman is the sole, ultimate reality. The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of soul within each human being, with the soul of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality ''Brahman''.

A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was [[Vivekananda]],{{sfn|King|2002|p=135-142}} who played a major role in the [[Hindu nationalism|revival of Hinduism]],{{sfn|Dense|1999|p=191}} and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the [[Vedanta Society]], the international arm of [[Ramakrishna Order]]. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called "Neo-Vedanta".{{sfn|Mukerji|1983}} The popular understanding of Hinduism has been dominated by this [[neo-Vedanta]],{{sfn|King|1999}}{{refn|group=note|Also called neo-Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999}}}} in which mysticism,{{sfn|King|1999}} Aryan origins and the unity of Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999|p=171}} have been emphasised.{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=3-4}}{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=18}}{{sfn|Jouhki|2006|p=10-11}}{{sfn|King|1999}}

In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, Maya is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality – the Brahman. Maya is unconscious, Brahman-Atman is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, Brahman is the figurative ''Upādāna'' – the principle and the cause. Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-Brahman is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree.

These notions also served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this notion of Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.{{sfn|King|2002|p=129-130}} It "provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression".{{sfn|King|2002|p=133}}

While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', they also expound on Brahman as ''saguna Brahman'' – the Brahman with attributes, and ''nirguna Brahman'' – the Brahman without attributes. The ''nirguna Brahman'' is the Brahman as it really is, however, the ''saguna Brahman'' is posited as a means to realizing ''nirguna Brahman'', but the Hinduism schools declare ''saguna Brahman'' to be ultimately illusory. The concept of the ''saguna Brahman'', such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.

==Influence==

=== Brahman as an ontological concept ===

The Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism, states Nakamura:<ref name=hajimenakamura3>Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 3</ref>

Brahman, along with Soul/Self (Atman) are part of the ontological premises of Bharat's philosophy. Different schools of Bharat's philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. Buddhism and Carvaka school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a soul, a self" (individual Atman or Brahman in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, Jainism and Ajivikas hold that there exists "a soul, a self".

Brahman as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga. Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of Brahman (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of Atman-Brahman is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (''sat''), consciousness (''cit'') and full of bliss (''ananda''), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded.

The prevalence of Vedanta thought is found not only in philosophical writings but also in various forms of ([[Hindu]]) literature, such as the epics, lyric poetry, drama and so forth. What is especially worthy of attention is that the Hindu religious sects, the common faith of the Indian populace, looked to Vedanta philosophy for the theoretical foundations for their theology. The influence of Vedanta is prominent in the sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as the various Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras. Many commentaries on the fundamental scripture of Vedanta, the Brahmasutra, were written by the founders or leading scholars of the various sects of Hinduism, and they are transmitted to this day as documents indispensable in the respective sectarian traditions. The majority of the traditional and conservative scholars in India today, called Pandits, are students of Vedanta, and an overwhelming number belong to the lineage of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] – five-sixths of all Pandits, according to some authorities.

|[[Hajime Nakamura]] (2004)|A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Volume 2<ref name=hajimenakamura3/>}}

[[Frithjof Schuon]] summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as, "The Vedanta contained in the Upanishads, then formulated in the ''Brahma Sutra'', and finally commented and explained by Shankara, is an invaluable key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the religious doctrines and for realizing that the ''[[Sanatana Dharma]]'' secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional spirituality.<ref>F Schuon (1975), One of the Great Lights of the World, in ''Spiritual Perspectives, Essays in Mysticism and Metaphysics (Editor: TMP Mahadevan), Arnold Heineman, ISBN , page 91</ref><ref>Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815735, page 11</ref> [[Gavin Flood]] states, "the most influential school of theology in India has been Vedanta, exerting enormous influence on all religious traditions and becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical paradigm of Hinduism ''par excellence''."<ref name=gavinfloodaith238>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page 238</ref>

In theistic schools, in contrast, such as Dvaita Vedanta, the nature of Brahman is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's soul is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the Brahman (therein viewed as the Godhead).

[[Lucian Blaga]] has often used the concepts ''Marele Anonim'' (‘the Great Anonymous’) and ''cenzura transcendentă'' (‘the transcendental censorship’) in his philosophy. He was influenced by Śaṅkara’s concepts of ''Brahman'' (‘God’) and ''māyā'' (‘illusion’).<ref> Iţu, Mircia (2007), ''Marele Anonim şi cenzura transcendentă la Blaga. Brahman şi māyā la Śaṅkara (‘The Great Anonymous and the transcendental censorship in Lucian Blaga. Brahman and māyā in Adi Shankara’),'' in ''Caiete critice'' 6-7 (236-237), Bucarest, pages 75-83. {{ISSN|1220-6350}}.</ref> In Śaṅkarācārya, Brahman is understood as ''nirguna Brahman'' (‘God without attributes’), whilst Īśvara is ''saguna Brahman'' (God with attributes). [[Louis Renou]] underlines that Brahman is superior to ''Īśvara'', while [[Olivier Lacombe]] writes that Brahman is Īśvara’s superlative.<ref>Lacombe, Olivier (1979), ''Indianité. Etudes historiques et comparatives sur la pensée indienne'', Paris: Les Belles Lettres.</ref> Brahman is different than Greek Zeus, as well as than Christian or Jewish God, than Muslim Allah, because he is transpersonal.<ref> Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Filosofia şi religiile Indiei (‘Indian Philosophy and Indian Religions’)'', Braşov: Orientul latin, page. 69 ISBN 973-9338-70-4</ref>  Māyā is a fundamental concept in Vedanta. It has several meanings and it has often been translated as ‘illusion’. According to L. Thomas O’Neil, māyā signifies ‘measuring the immeasurable’.<ref>O’Neil, Thomas L. (1980), ''Māyā in Śaṅkara. Measuring the Immeasurable'', New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, page 140.</ref>

Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to Brahman, reality and nature of existence. Vaisheshikaschool of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology. The Carvaka school denied Brahman and Atman, and held a materialist ontology.

==Comparison to Western philosophies==

=== Brahman as an axiological concept ===

Similarities between Vedanta and Western philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authorities. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the late 18th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} In 1785 appeared the first western translation of a Sanskrit-text.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=176}} It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} The first translation of Upanishads appeared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} which influenced [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], who called them "the consolation of my life".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}{{refn|group=note|And called his poodle "Atman".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}}} Schopenhauer drew explicit parallels between his philosophy, as set out in 'The World as Will and Representation',<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. ''The World as Will and Representation''. Translated from the German by EFJ Payne. Dover Publications, vol. 1, chap. 1</ref> and that of the Vedanta philosophy ascribed to Vasya in the work of Sir William Jones.<ref>Jones, Sir William. ''On the Philosophy of the Asiatics''. Sir William Jones. Asiatic Researches, vol. 4, p. 164</ref> Early translations also appeared in other European languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=183-184}}

Brahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of axiology: ethics and aesthetics. ''Ananda'' (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of Brahman, as the universal inner harmony. Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense.

In the 20th century, comparisons between Advaita, western philosophy, and science took a high flight. [[Brian David Josephson]], Welsh physicist, and Nobel Prize laureate says:<ref>[http://www.truedharma.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4:synthesis-of-science-and-spirituality&catid=3:awaken&Itemid=2 "Synthesis of Science and Spirituality"]</ref>

The axiological concepts of Brahman and Atman is central to Hindu theory of values. A statement such as ‘I am Brahman’, states Shaw, means ‘I am related to everything,’ and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa.Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where Brahman and Atman are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasize individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self.

{{quote|The Vedanta and the Sankhya hold the key to the laws of the mind and thought process which are co-related to the Quantum Field, i.e. the operation and distribution of particles at atomic and molecular levels.}}

The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and Atman, states Bauer. The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's soul with the Brahman, the soul of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself. It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human soul and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good. Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature. The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Bharat's philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe. The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual soul is the universal soul, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman.

[[Max Müller]], in his lectures, noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], saying

{{quote|[T]he Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'."<ref>Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy. F. Max Muller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p123</ref>}}

[[Helena Blavatsky]], a founder of the [[Theosophical Society]], also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay

=== Brahman as a soteriological concept: Moksha ===

The 19th-century German Sanskritist [[Theodore Goldstücker]] was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza, writing that Spinoza's thought was

The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of moksha. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss), because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.

{{quote|...&nbsp;so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...] comparing the fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy.<ref>Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.</ref><ref>The Westminster Review, Volumes 78-79, Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862</ref>}}

==References==

==References==

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