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Types of Discourse (सम्भाषाप्रकाराः) (view source)
Revision as of 17:01, 2 May 2019
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There was, for a considerable period of time, a very lively and extensively practiced tradition of formal debates in ancient India. These debates were conducted, sometimes with royal patronage, to examine various religious, philosophical, moral and doctrinal issues.<ref name=":0">Bimal Krishna Matilal; Jonardon Ganeri; Heeraman Tiwari (1998). ''The Character of Logic in India''. SUNY Press. p. 31. <nowiki>ISBN 9780791437407</nowiki>.</ref> For example, [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्)|Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]], a pre-Buddhist text, has references to King Janaka as not only organizing and patronizing debates between the sages and priests but also as participating in such debates.<ref name=":0" /> Even women used to participate in these debates. [[Gargi (गार्गी)|Gargi]] was a woman scholar who used to participate in the debates in King Janaka's court.<ref name=":0" />
There was, for a considerable period of time, a very lively and extensively practiced tradition of formal debates in ancient India. These debates were conducted, sometimes with royal patronage, to examine various religious, philosophical, moral and doctrinal issues.<ref name=":0">Bimal Krishna Matilal; Jonardon Ganeri; Heeraman Tiwari (1998). ''The Character of Logic in India''. SUNY Press. p. 31. <nowiki>ISBN 9780791437407</nowiki>.</ref> For example, [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्)|Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]], a pre-Buddhist text, has references to King Janaka as not only organizing and patronizing debates between the sages and priests but also as participating in such debates.<ref name=":0" /> Even women used to participate in these debates. [[Gargi (गार्गी)|Gargi]] was a woman scholar who used to participate in the debates in King Janaka's court.<ref name=":0" />
In the Indian traditions, including the Buddhist and Jain traditions, four formats of discussions, debates and arguments are described. There are four types of discussions - Samvada (संवादः), Vada (वादः) , Jalpa (जल्पः) and Vitanda (वितण्डा). The merit and esteem of each of these types of discussions is graded in terms of the honesty of their purpose, the quality of debate, the decorum and the mutual regard of the participants.<ref name=":3">Sreenivas Rao, http://swaminathanv208.blogspot.in/2016/05/discussions-debates-and-arguments.html</ref>
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
There was a long and a time-honored tradition in ancient India where philosophers and thinkers met to discuss metaphysical issues over which there were multiple views. There are detailed narrations of such discussions, debates and dialogues recorded in Chandogya Upanishad, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Prashna Upanishad. The other early texts such as Aitareya Brahmana, Kathopanishad and others use terms like : tarka (reasoning), Vada (debate), Yukti ( sustained arguments), Prameya (object of knowledge), Pramana ( proof), Nirnaya (ascertainment) etc. which later became the principal terminologies of the Nyaya School. It is also said that the idioms of inquiry (Anveshiki) dealing with the theory of reasons (Hetu-vidya or Hetu-shastra) were mentioned in Manu-samhita and Panini’s Ashtadhyayi.<ref name=":3" />
As Bimal Krishna Matilal observes (in The Character of Logic in India):
.. The intellectual climate in India was bristling questions such as: “Is there a soul different from body?”; “Is the world (loka) eternal?”; ”What is the meaning, goal, or purpose of life?”; and, “Is renunciation preferable to enjoyment?” etc. which were of major concern. As teachers and thinkers argued about such matters, there arose a gradual awareness of the characteristics or patterns of correct, acceptable and sound reasoning. There were also concerns to evolve the norms to distinguish sound reasoning from pseudo-reasoning (hetvabhasa) which is unacceptable. Gradually, the notions of ‘good’ and acceptable debates took shape as distinct from wrong and ugly arguments. That gave rise to the development of a branch of study dealing with theories of reasoning and logic (Hetu-vidya or Hetu shastra). Subsequently, manuals came to be written for conduct of proper and successful debates (Tarka vidya or Vada vidya). These manuals included instructions and learning methods for the guidance of aspiring debaters. The earliest known text of that genre was Tantra-yukti (structured argument) compiled to systemize debates conducted in learned councils (Parishad).<ref name=":3" />
Debates and arguments then came to be recognized both as art of logical reasoning (Tarka-vidya) and science of causes (Hetu-shastra) following the path of a well-disciplined method of inquiry (anvikshiki) testing scriptural knowledge by further scrutiny.<ref name=":3" />
The monks and priests belonging to various Schools and sects were imparted training in Tarka–vidya: the art and skills of conducting impressive successful debates and disputations (Sambasha or Vada vidhi) in learned assemblies (parishad). Apart from methods of presenting arguments as per a logically structured format, the training modules included ways to stoutly defend ones thesis by means of genuine criteria of knowledge (Pramana) and to attack the opponent’s thesis by means of indirect arguments (Tarka); estimating the strengths and weaknesses of arguments of either side; establishing one’s own points while setting aside those of the opponent. They were also trained for handling different types of challenges, such as: how to vanquish a person of blazing fame; how to behave with a senior opponent; how to handle an aggressive and troublesome opponent; and, how to conduct oneself in prestigious Parishads, to influence the flow of debate and to impress the judges and the onlookers etc. These types of debates and arguments come under the purview of Nyaya or Nyaya Shastra. Nyaya, one among the 6 darshanas deals with well-organized logical ways of ascertaining the true nature of the objects and subjects of human knowledge (Pramana-Sastra). It is also called Tarka-vidya (logic) and Vada-vidya or Vadartha (reasoned argument); and is included among the fourteen principal branches of learning.<ref name=":3" />
Nyaya Sutra treats mainly five subjects:
# Pramana (instruments or means of right knowledge)
# Prameya (the object of right knowledge)
# Vaada (debate or discussion)
# Avayava (the elements or steps of syllogism)
# Anya-matha-pariksha (review or examination of the doctrines of other Schools)
While discussing Vaada, Nyaya Sutra talks about sixteen padarthas (topics or categories ) involved in the development of the debate (Vada marga);
* the four reliable means of obtaining valid knowledge (pramāṇa) viz.: Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison ) and Sabda (reliable testimony );
* the five-part syllogism (Nyaya);
* the structure (vada vidhi);
* the ways of developing sound evidence (pramana);
* the logical reasoning (tarka) to support ones thesis which needs to be proved (Pratijna) and its object (nirnaya);
* the disciplined (anusasana) mode of presentation (vadopaya); and the exceptions (prthaka-prasthana), as also
* the limits or the ‘dos and don’ts’ (vada-maryada) of three formats of such debates.<ref name=":3" />
According to the commentaries on the Nyaya Sutras, the debates and arguments are grouped under a broad head titled ‘Katha’.
In Sanskrit, the term ‘Katha’, in general, translates as ‘to inform’, ‘to narrate’, ‘to address or to refer to somebody’. In the context of Nyaya Shatra, which provides the knowledge about the methods for presenting arguments (Vako-Vakya or Vada-vidya) as also the rules governing the debates, the term ‘Katha’ implies formal conversation (Sambasha) as in a debate. The conversation here is not in the casual manner as in day-to-day life. But, it is articulate, precise and well thought out utterances. Katha is described as ‘polemical conversation’, meaning that it is passionate and strongly worded, but a well balanced argument against or in favor of somebody or something. That is why; the discussions (Vaada) are never simple. A Katha, in essence, is a reasoned and a well-structured philosophical discussion.
Vatsayana at the beginning of his commentary on Nyaya Sutra (1.2.1) mentions that Katha is classified into two kinds of debates (Dvi-vidha sambasha): Vaada (the good-Sandhya sambasha) on one hand; and Jalpa and Vitanda (the bad- Vigrahya sambasha) on the other. Uddyotakara in his - Nyāya Vārttika further explains that this threefold classification is according to the nature of the debate and the status of the persons taking part in the debate.
The first variety, Vaada is an honest, peaceful and congenial (sandhaya) debate that takes place between two persons of equal merit or standing, trying to explore the various dimensions of a subject with a view to ascertain and establish ‘what is true’. The Vaada, at its best, is a candid friendly discussion (anuloma sambasha or sandhya sambasha) or debate in the spirit of: ’let’s sit-down and talk’.
The other two are hostile arguments (vigrhya sambasha) between rivals who desperately want to win. Thus, by implication,-while the goal of a Vaada is establishment of truth or an accepted doctrine; and that of the other two hostile debates (Jalpa and Vitanda) is seeking victory.<ref name=":3" />
Although intellectual debates were quite common during the Upanishad-times, and even later, there was perhaps no well laid out theory or an approved structure for conduct of various types of debates. It is said; it was during the Sramana and the Buddhist period that debates became really very serious.
In the Indian traditions, four formats of discussions, debates and arguments are described. There are four types of discussions. Namely,
# Samvada (संवादः)
# Vada (वादः)
# Jalpa (जल्पः)
# Vitanda (वितण्डा)
The merit and esteem of each of these types of discussions is graded in terms of
# the honesty of their purpose
# the quality of debate
# the decorum
# the mutual regard of the participants.<ref name=":3">Sreenivas Rao, http://swaminathanv208.blogspot.in/2016/05/discussions-debates-and-arguments.html</ref>
While Samvada is a discourse or imparting of teaching, the other three – Vada, Jalpa and Vitanda- are clever and structured (Tantrayukti) debates and arguments between rivals.<ref name=":3" />
The vada, is a candid friendly discussion (anuloma sambasha or sandhya sambasha) or debate in the spirit of: ’let’s sit-down and talk’. The other two are hostile arguments (vigrhya sambasha) between rivals who desperately want to win. Thus, while the goal of a vada is establishment of truth or an accepted doctrine; and that of the other two hostile debates (Jalpa and Vitanda) is seeking victory on the opponent.<ref name=":3" />
The vada, is a candid friendly discussion (anuloma sambasha or sandhya sambasha) or debate in the spirit of: ’let’s sit-down and talk’. The other two are hostile arguments (vigrhya sambasha) between rivals who desperately want to win. Thus, while the goal of a vada is establishment of truth or an accepted doctrine; and that of the other two hostile debates (Jalpa and Vitanda) is seeking victory on the opponent.<ref name=":3" />
=== Samvada ===
=== Samvada ===
Samvada is the discussion between an ardent seeker of truth and an enlightened teacher as in Sri Krishna-Arjuna samvada. The student here, does not question the teacher but questions his understanding for clarification. This type of discussion can occur only when the student surrenders himself completely at the feet of the teacher. Most of the ancient Indian texts are in this format.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
Of the four forms of discussions, Samvada is regarded the noblest type of dialogue that takes place. It is the discussion between an ardent seeker of truth and an enlightened teacher as in Sri Krishna-Arjuna samvada. The student here, does not question the teacher but questions his understanding for clarification. This type of discussion can occur only when the student surrenders himself completely at the feet of the teacher. Most of the ancient Indian texts are in this format.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
=== Vada ===
=== Vada ===