Sulphur or Gandhaka (गन्धकः)

Courtesy: Brasted, R. C.. "sulfur." Encyclopedia Britannica, September 14, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfur.

Gandhaka (Samskrit: गन्धकः) means Sulphur (also Sulfur) in English. It is a chemical element with atomic number 16 and chemical formula 'S'. Sulfur (S), nonmetallic chemical element belonging to the oxygen group (Group 16 [VIa] of the periodic table), is one of the most reactive of the elements. Pure sulfur is a tasteless, odourless, brittle solid that is pale yellow in colour, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. It reacts with all metals except gold and platinum, forming sulfides; it also forms compounds with several nonmetallic elements. Millions of tons of sulfur are produced each year, mostly for the manufacture of sulfuric acid, which is widely used in industry.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

In Ayurveda's Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्), sulphur is used widely in medicinal formulations. In Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्) treatises, various details about sulphur like appearance, types, purification, processing, use in medicinal formulations etc., have been discussed in depth. Although sulfa drugs are popularly used antibiotics and represent therapeutic use of Sulphur in Western medicine, the nature and form in which sulphur in utilized in Ayurvedic medicines is completely different and it has been in practice for thousands of years before western medicine used it as antibiotic. Gandhak is second most important mineral of Rasa-Shastra. It is enumerated in Uparasa, and having a characteristic smell. Though it is a non-metal, ancient Indian alchemists studied about this element at length, its ores, availability and properties and its role in curing physical decay, skin diseases and senility has been in use in Ayurveda. For any mercurial preparations it is most demanding mineral. Sulphur may reduce the nephrotoxic and allergic manifestations of mercury. The uses of Gandhaka started from Samhita period and its external or internal uses indicate that the Acharyas were well aware about their therapeutic properties.

पर्यायाः ॥ Synonyms of Gandhaka used in Ayurveda

According to Rasajalanidhi, the following are the synonyms used for sulphur.

गन्धाश्मा गन्धको गन्धो गन्धी च गन्धिको वलिः। सौगन्धिकः सुगन्धिकः पामघ्नो गन्धमादनः ॥

शुल्वारिः पूतगन्धश्च कुष्ठारिर्दिव्यगन्धकः। सुगन्धी रसगन्धश्च कीटघ्नः क्रूरगन्धकः ॥

नवनीतस्तथा प्रोक्तो गन्धेशः शरभूमिजः।

gandhāśmā gandhakō gandhō gandhī ca gandhikō valiḥ| saugandhikaḥ sugandhikaḥ pāmaghnō gandhamōdanaḥ ||

śulvāriḥ pūtagandhaśca kuṣṭhārirdivyagandhakaḥ| sugandhī rasagandhaśca kīṭaghnaḥ krūragandhakaḥ ||

navanītastathā prōktō gandhēśaḥ śarabhūmijaḥ|

A brief comparison of the synonyms of Gandhaka as given by Mishra and in Rasajalanidhi are tabulated below. Various Synonyms of Gandhaka reveals its physical, chemical, therapeutic as well as its Mythological origin. For example, sulphur was called "शुल्वारी । Shulvari" meaning that which is enemy (अरिः) of, or reacts with, copper (शुल्वा। Shulva).

Mishra	Rasajalanidhi
Gauripushpa (गौरीपुष्पः) - Originate from Rajah of Parvati	Gandhashma (गन्धाश्मा) - Sulphur rock
Balivasa (बलिवसा) - originated from the fat of Raja Bali	Gandha (गन्धः / गन्धकः) Gandhi (गन्धी / गन्धिकः) - Due to its strong & peculiar odour/ having odiferous, smelling
Lelitaka (लेलितक)	Gandhamadana (गन्धमादनः) - Intoxication with fragrance
Atigandha (अतिगन्धः)	Putigandha (पूतगन्ध) - It has a strong smell/excessive strong odor/putrid smell
Kushthari (कुष्ठारिः)	Kushthari (कुष्ठारिः) - Used to treat Kushta roga (leprosy)
Kitaghna (कीटघ्नः)	Kitagna (कीटघ्नः) - Having insecticidal properties/anti microbial property
Navaneeta (नवनीतः)	Navaneeta (नवनीतः) - yellow coloured, smooth and soft like butter
Shulbari (शुल्बारिः)	Shulvari (शुल्वारिः) - Degenerates copper
Pamari (पामारिः)	Pamaghna (पामघ्न) - Used to treat skin disease Pama
Bali (बलिः)	Vali (वलिः) - Balya in nature, Raja Bali used it
Sugandha (सुगन्धः)	Sougandhika (सौगन्धिकः), Sugandhika (सुगन्धिकः) - Sweet smelling & fragrance
	Kruragrandhaka (क्रूरगन्धकः) - smells formidably
	Shaabhumija (शरभूमिजः) - found in small pond

इतिहासः ॥ History

The knowledge of Indians about sulfur is very ancient. In the oldest and most popular treatise of Ayurveda Charaka Samhita (चरक संहिता) which was written 1200 years before Christ, sulfur has been used at many places for the treatment of many diseases. Its use has increased in texts written in later times. In the texts after the 8th century, Parada (पारदः Mercury) was mixed with Gandhaka and used in medicines and in Dhatuvada (धातुवाद) or metallurgical work. Since then till today no metal work is done without sulphur. The name Shulbari etc. is the symbol of Sulphur being the enemy of copper. If copper is heated by mixing sulphur, then copper gets destroyed.

In History of Hindu Chemistry, Sulphur has been mentioned as one of the eight uparasas, useful in operations of mercury. Mercury is one of the metals which attracted wide attention of ayurvedic chemists and physicians. Indeed the documentation of chemical and physical processes involving mercury is truly enormous in ancient texts of which classics by Vagabhatta and Nagarjuna are noteworthy. Among the various procedures which utilize mercury, we became interested in the one that involves mercury and sulfur.

Legends about Gandhak

In Samudra manthan the menstruate of Goddess Parvati came out then its strong smell hypnotized all demons, so named as Gandhaka. According to Āyurveda Prakāśa when Devī Pārvatī was playing near Kṣīrābdhi, she menstruated. The Raja was very fragrant and beautiful. The cloth which was wet with Raja was then washed in the ocean. That Raja when mixed with the water converted into Gandhaka. When Deva and Dānava started churning of ocean at that time Gandhaka came out along with nector and that Gandhaka having characteristic smell pleased Deva and Dānava. Hence Deva’s gave the name Gandhaka to it.

In other version, during Samudra manthana, on every pulling by Vasuki-naga exhaled poisonous and inflammable air, which caused the melting of demon King Bali’s vasa or fat. The fat was having peculiar smell, called as Gandhaka and hence called Bali Vasa. Due to the poisonous flames coming out of Vasuki serpent, Gandhaka became poisonous.

Mercury is considered an element of Shiva, whereas sulphur, an element of Parvati and the product that was created from their union in asafoetida was called ras sindur, which was considered the essence for longevity.

स्वरूपम् ॥ Characteristics

Gandhaka is available in both free and bound forms. Sulfur mixed with metals is available in pure form near volcanic mountains and at other places. Sulfur is found in the form of both sulphide and sulphate compounds.

निमेलस्तु रजनीसमप्रभो दीप्तिमांश्च नबनीतकोमलः । कीर्तितो ह्यमलसारसंज्ञको गन्धको रसरसायने वरः ॥|४।। nimēlastu rajanīsamaprabhō dīptimāṁśca nabanītakōmalaḥ | kīrtitō hyamalasārasaṁjñakō gandhakō rasarasāyanē varaḥ |||4|| (Rasa. Tara. 8.4)

In Rasatarangini, the qualities of gandhaka are: it should have nirmal (clean without physical impurities), Rajanisamaprabha (yellow colour as Haridra), Deeptimamscha (lustrous) and Navneetkomalah (soft like butter). Only Amalasara Gandhaka has these properties, so used for many medicinal preparations.

गन्धकखनिजानि ॥ Sulfur Minerals

Naturally Sulphur is available in the form of various minerals of sulphur. Gandhaka or Sulphur is extracted from these minerals. Some of the suphur minerals are listed below,

• Sulphide - in Sulphide form

1. Iron Pyrite Iron Pyrite (Fe S2)
2. Copper Pyrite Copper Pyrite (Cu,S Fe, S)
3. Galena (PbS)
4. Cinnabar (Hg S)
5. Hydrogen Sulfide Hydrogen Sulfide (H, S)

• Sulphate - In the form of Sulphate.

1. Gypsum or calcium sulfate (Ca SO 2H, O)
2. Heavy spar (Ba SO )
3. Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO, 7H, O)
4. Copper Sulphate (Cu SO, SHO)

गन्धकस्य नैसर्गिकस्त्रोताः ॥ Natural sources of Sulphur

Sulfur is also found in some organic substances like radish, onion, garlic, egg, etc. and in coal and crude petroleum products. These are the natural sources through which one can get organic form of sulphur. In cosmic abundance, sulfur ranks ninth among the elements, accounting for only one atom of every 20,000–30,000. Sulfur occurs in the uncombined state as well as in combination with other elements in rocks and minerals that are widely distributed, although it is classified among the minor constituents of Earth’s crust, in which its proportion is estimated to be between 0.03 and 0.06 percent. On the basis of the finding that certain meteorites contain about 12 percent sulfur, it has been suggested that deeper layers of Earth contain a much larger proportion. Seawater contains about 0.09 percent sulfur in the form of sulfate. In underground deposits of very pure sulfur that are present in domelike geologic structures, the sulfur is believed to have been formed by the action of bacteria upon the mineral anhydrite, in which sulfur is combined with oxygen and calcium. Deposits of sulfur in volcanic regions probably originated from gaseous hydrogen sulfide generated below the surface of Earth and transformed into sulfur by reaction with the oxygen in the air.

प्राप्तिस्थानम् ॥ Place of Availability

Free sulfur is found in the Sicilian volcanic region of 'Italy', New Zealand, Japan, Spain, Texas etc. countries. It can also be found in countries like Russia, Japan, Burma, Iceland, America, Chile, Philippines, etc. In India, sulfur is found in abundance in Singhbhum district and Rohitas district of Jharkhand province, in Rajasthan, Kumaon and Assam.

गन्धकभेदाः ॥ Sulfur Types

Ayurveda scholars have described various types of Gandhaka. It is classified on the basis of color, mode of consumption or utilization etc. Depending on its colour the supremacy of the gandhaka type and its value based on it has been decided. Gandhaka types are thus further also graded into good, better, best types. From a philosophical point of view, sulfur is the same but there are many differences of sulfur in shape, color etc.

Four types of Sulphur are categorized based on colour

चतुर्धा गन्धको ज्ञेयो वर्णैः श्वेतादिभिः खलु । श्वेतोऽत्र खटिकाकारो लेपनाल्लोहमारणः ॥

तथा चामलसारः स्यात् यो भावेत् पीतवर्णवान् । शुकपिच्छः स एव स्यात् श्रेष्ठो रसे रसायने ॥

रक्तश्च शुकतुण्डाख्यो धातुवादविधौ वारः । दुर्लभः कृष्णवर्णश्च स जरामृत्युनाशनः ॥

caturdhā gandhakō jñēyō varṇaiḥ śvētādibhiḥ khalu | śvētō’tra khaṭikākārō lēpanāllōhamāraṇaḥ ||

tathā cāmalasāraḥ syāt yō bhāvēt pītavarṇavān | śukapicchaḥ sa ēva syāt śrēṣṭhō rasē rasāyanē ||

raktaśca śukatuṇḍākhyō dhātuvādavidhau vāraḥ | durlabhaḥ kr̥ṣṇavarṇaśca sa jarāmr̥tyunāśanaḥ ||

They are as follows.

1. श्वेतवर्णः ॥ Shweta - Also known as Khatika type (chalk type) which is white in color. It is of inferior quality. It is capable of incinerating a metal by besmearing the latter (Loha Marana).
2. पीतवर्णः ॥ Peeta - Yellow in color. Also known as aamla-sara or Shukapichhanibha i.e of the color of tail of parrot. This type is commonly used in medicine. It is best suited to the requirements of mercury and of medicines prepared to cure aging.
3. रक्तवर्णः ॥ Rakta - Red in color. Also known as Shukatundanibha i.e. of the color of Parrot's beak. This type is considered the best one and utilized chiefly in Dhatuvada (Metallurgy). It is best suited to the requirements of alchemy.
4. कृष्णवर्णः ॥ Krshna - It is said to be the rarest type of Gandhaka. It can ward off senility and death.

Form of Gandhaka, Amlasaara, is considered best for use in Medicine

• Yellowish-green in color like parrot's tail,
• smooth,
• hard and
• gem-shaped sulfur is superior.

Physical Properties of Sulphur

Pure sulfur is a tasteless, odourless, brittle solid that is pale yellow in colour, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. It reacts with all metals except gold and platinum, forming sulfides; it also forms compounds with several nonmetallic elements.

Sulfur is a yellow colored gem-shaped hard substance which shatters to pieces. It emits a special type of smell which becomes very intense in contact with fire. The gas emanating from it, called sulfur dioxide, is suffocating and gives shortness of breath. The melting point of sulfur is about 115°C and it becomes thick at 230°C. On increasing the temperature, its color changes to the color of Nar. But it turns yellow again at higher temperatures above 500°C, its boiling point is 444°C. Its relative density is 2.06, it is insoluble in water.

Element Properties

atomic number	16
atomic weight	32.064
melting point
rhombic	112.8 °C (235 °F)
monoclinic	119 °C (246 °F)
boiling point	444.6 °C (832 °F)
density (at 20 °C [68 °F])
rhombic	2.07 grams/cm3
monoclinic	1.96 grams/cm3
oxidation states	−2, +4, +6
electron configuration	1s22s22p63s23p4

Uses of Sulphur

Sulphur is used for multiple purposes in different industries. Few common uses of sulphur apart from medicinal use are listed below,

• In making Sulfur Dioxide gas, from which Sulfuric Acid and Sulphide are made which are very useful for Metallurgy .
• Carbon dioxide gas in fireworks, matches, and gunpowder etc.
• Useful in vulcanizing rubber.
• Useful in purifying metals and making fertilizers.

Doshas / Impurities in Sulphur

Ayurveda advocates use of any mineral or metal only after its thorough purification known as Shodhana. It is applicable for Gandhaka as well. Rasashastra branch of Ayurveda provides various methods to purify and process Gandhaka before using it in the medicinal formulations. If the appropriate methods of processing Gandhaka are not used or they are skipped and such Gandhaka/Sulphur is used in the medicinal formulations then it can certainly cause some ill effects. Ayurveda acharyas have deeply studied these effects and described those to make people aware and cautious. According to Rasajalanidhi

गन्धे मलद्वयं दृष्टं शिलाचूर्णं विषं तथा । शोधितव्यस्ततो यत्नादभिज्ञेन यथाविधि॥ (Rasa. Jala. 2.8)

gandhē maladvayaṁ dr̥ṣṭaṁ śilācūrṇaṁ viṣaṁ tathā | śōdhitavyastatō yatnādabhijñēna yathāvidhi||

There are two types of impurities in sulphur

1. शिलाचूर्णम् ॥ Shila Churna (physical impurities like clay, sand etc) and
2. विषम् ॥ Visha Dosha (chemical impurities like arsenic, lead etc)

Therefore, it should be subjected to shodhana or purification by a skilled physician with care.

Harmful effects of consuming impure Sulphur

Impure Gandhaka produces many disorders such as Jwara, Bhrama, Twak-vikar, Rakta-vikar, vitiate Roop, Virya, Bala and Sukra. Consuming impure sulphur gives rise to leprosy, giddiness, diseases due to an excess of pitta, loss of beauty, happiness, strength and semen.

अशोधितः सुगन्धिकस्तनौ तनोति तापकम्‌ | भ्रुशञ्च चित्तविभ्रमं करोति रक्तजान्‌ गदान्‌ ।।५।।

प्रसन्नतां सरूपतां शरीरबन्धचारुताम्‌ | प्रभां बलञ्च नाशयत्यतो विशोधयेत्तु तम्‌ ॥६॥ (Rasa. Tara.8.5-6)

aśōdhitaḥ sugandhikastanau tanōti tāpakam‌ | bhruśañca cittavibhramaṁ karōti raktajān‌ gadān‌ ||5||

prasannatāṁ sarūpatāṁ śarīrabandhacārutām‌ | prabhāṁ balañca nāśayatyatō viśōdhayēttu tam‌ ||6||

If these impurities are not removed before use Gandhaka is likely to produce following diseases - Tāpa (fever), Raktajanya Vikṛti (blood related disorders), Cittavibhrama (vertigo), Kuṣṭha (leprosy), Pittaja vyādhi (Pitta associated disorders), Śukrahāni (seminal loss), Kāmalā (jaundice) so must be purified before use. It promotes anger and produces gall disease. It destroys the form, semen, strength and happiness. Impure sulphur is said to kill a person as it works like poison. By visual inspection of Amlasara Gandhaka, its toxicity etc. defects are not perceived, these defects are visible in the form of poison on the person's body after use, i.e., experiential.

अशुद्धगन्धः कुरुते च कुष्ठं तापं भ्रमं पित्तरुजं तथैव । रूपं सुखं वीर्यबलं निहन्ति तस्माद्विशुद्धो विनियोजनीयः ॥ (Ayur. Prak. 2.18) aśuddhagandhaḥ kurutē ca kuṣṭhaṁ tāpaṁ bhramaṁ pittarujaṁ tathaiva | rūpaṁ sukhaṁ vīryabalaṁ nihanti tasmādviśuddhō viniyōjanīyaḥ ||

By consuming ashuddha gandhaka, a person gets kustha (leprosy), shareera tapa (fever), bhrama (giddiness/vertigo), pittarogas (pitta associated diseases) etc.

Antidote for consuming Ashuddha Gandhaka: Goghruta and Godugdha sevana.

Shodhana Process

Before making any pharmaceutical preparations, sulphur is exposed to a ‘shodhana’ procedure and there are multiple methods of ‘shodhana’ as described in different classics. The ‘shodhana’ process described in Ayurveda is not merely a purification step, but also a mechanism of transforming the physical structure of a material into a drug by aiding it to adsorb organic and inorganic substances. In the Indian context, the ‘shodhana’ process with ghee and cow's milk is the most common method performed for sulphur. Research involving the use of plant extracts such as Eclipta alba in the shodhana process were undertaken in one study along with a comparison to the laboratory purification method. The authors reported that although the laboratory purification method separates the sulphur from chemical impurities, the Ayurveda ‘shodhana’ process converts the sulphur into a state where it is more suitable as a pharmaceutical material by enhancing porosity, fragility as these qualities support to disintegration and blend with other materials during the pharmaceutical manufacturing processes. Shodhana or the purification process thus removes the physical as well as chemical impurities.

Different procedures of purification of Sulphur

Following is a methods of purification

1. Swedana with milk for1/2 hr then melted in Ghrit and filtered with a cloth.
2. Melted in Mustard/Til/Kausumbh oil, poured in milk and allowed to cool, then wash with hot water and dried well.
3. Melted in Ghrit and poured in milk and allow to cool then wash with hot water. Repeat this for three times.
4. Melted and poured in to Bhringraaja Swarasa. Repeat for seven times.
5. In Swedani yantra, Gandhaka purified in first time.
6. Urdhawapatana of Gandhaka makes it best and pure.
7. Heated with limewater, then after cooling, Lavanadravaka is added drop by drop then whole Gandhaka precipitate in the bottom.
8. Gandhaka and ¼ Tankana, pasted with Bijpurak swarasa and bhawana with Erand oil, then dried in excessive sun light.

Properties of Pure Sulfur

Gandhaka stands next to Pārada (mercury) in the field of Rasa-śāstra. It is considered as Rasāyana, Rakta Śodhaka and Twaka-roganāśaka. Here, the term Rasāyana stands for longevity. Blood is always a symbol of life and being Rakta Śodhaka, definitely Gandhaka and its properties give fortune. It is a unique concept of Ayurveda, which promotes the defense mechanism of the body and helps in the prevention of disease as well as their earlier cure. Gandhaka has also Guṇa-dharma like Kṛmighna, Kuṣṭhaghna, Kaṇḍughna.

Ancient classics mention the therapeutic use of Gandhaka in treating various disorders in different therapeutic dosage forms like Rasāyana, Druti, and Taila for both internal and external uses especially in skin diseases like Kaṇḍu, Visarpa and Dadru. It is indicated in all types of Kuṣṭha (skin diseases), Nadivrana (sinuses) and Koṣṭhagata Roga (GIT disorders). It reduces and dries up the undigested food in GIT and so reduces the chance of poisoning.

Pure sulfur is very chemical, it is sweet but it is bitter and hot in cooking. Gandhaka is known to have the property of killing Kandu, Leprosy, Visarp, Dadru and Jathragni is illuminating, digestive, common killer and absorbent, antidote, gives power to mercury, and anthelmintic.

Pharmacological Properties

According to Rasaratna Samucchaya, Gandhaka gunas are as follows

गन्धाश्मातिरसायनः सुमधुरः पाके कटू shna

Dosage and Diet

Pure sulfur should be given from 1 Ratti to 8 Ratti. If any disorder arises in the body after consuming Sulphur, then drinking 100 grams of Ghoghrit and Mishri in 1 liter of milk for 2 weeks calms down the pain caused by Sulfur disorder. At the time of consumption of gandhak, one should eat diet consisting of wild animals-birds and Chaag meat. Cow's milk, cow's ghee, wheat, rice, sandhava, sugar candy, clean and pure cool water should be included in the diet. Excessive salt, acid, bitter foods, vegetable, (leaf vegetable) and pulses are unhealthy. Kshar and Kanji should not be consumed. One should not board a fast-moving vehicle and be with women.

Ayurvedic formulations from pure sulfur

1. Arshakuthar ras
2. Rasparpati
3. Rasindoor
4. Kanakasunderaras
5. Jayamangalras
6. Vijayabhairavaras
7. Trisunderaras
8. Panchamritparpati
9. Samirpannagaras
10. Saubhagyavati
11. Mrityunjayavati
12. Mahajvarankusharas
13. Hanspotli

Sulpha allergies

Modern medicine has brought a new revolution in the medical world by inventing medicines called "Sulfadrug" in "Allopathy".

Sulfur is useful in killing bacteria and destroying fungus.