Upayas in Indian Diplomacy

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The four upayas – sama (conciliation), dana (concession or gift), danda (punishment), and bheda (dissension) existed to realize an objective or aim of a Raja or Maharaja since ancient times in India. These upayas were to be used in times of peace by the king in his foreign relations. Accordingly, foreign relations would be determined by self-interest, not ethical concerns. Modern states have been practicing what Kautilya had advocated but it is neither acknowledged nor attributed to his genius. It is pertinent to mention that there is a hierarchy in use of these upayas in the order of sama, dana, bheda while danda or use of force would be the last resort. These tactics can be either used alone or in combination as well. In the case of allies and enemies, a combination of these methods ensures success because the different methods mutually reinforce each other. 20th century classic realist, Hans J Morgenthau, in his book Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, (1966) has given methods that can be used in balance of power. These methods are similar to those given by Kautilya, but Morgenthau does not refer to Kautilya. The methods discussed by him include divide and rule, compensation, armaments and alliances.

Kautilya prescribes the four upayas or ways to enforce the king's hegemony in the mandala. These are methods of persuasion and tacit measures to get the writ of the vijigishu running in the mandala and these are the ways to consolidate his rule. Kautilya realized these are recognized expedients, because as a realist thinker, he knows fully well that although trickery and deceipt play important part in politics, diplomacy by trickery seldom helps a country to achieve its objective. The four upayas are:

The four upayas given by Kautilya are explained below.  Sama: There are five meanings attached to sama o

He refers to the four types of means (upaya) to realise a policy—sama (peace), dana (gift), bheda (dissention) and danda (constraint and coercion). But coercion should not be used except as the last expedient.

Yajnavalkya Smriti- I, 346 Explaining these terms Apararka or AparSditya says in his commentary (AnandSsrama ed., 2 vols. 1903):

Sana—priyabhashanam

bheda—svamibhntyanSm vimatikaranam (attacking the loyalty of the personnel)

danda—vittasya sarirasya vapidanam.

(Refer for Above- Studies in Hindu Political Thought page 355)

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Kautilya also mentions the use of four ancient concepts that overlap the six measures of foreign policy and can be adapted to any of them. These concepts are adopting a conciliatory attitude (sama), placating with rewards and gifts (dana), sowing dissensions among enemies (Bheda), and using force (danda). Conciliation (sama) is achieved by praising the merits of a person‘s qualities, occupation, nature, or wealth, by extolling common relationships, explaining the advantages that will accrue to each of the two parties, and awarding an honor or a high rank. Placating with gifts (dana) is achieved by rewarding with money, granting favors, exempting from taxes, and giving employment.23 According to Kautilya, gifts are of five kinds: relinquishing what is owed, continuing a payment already made, return of something received, giving something new out of one‘s own wealth, and permission to take something from the enemy.

Sowing dissensions (bheda) is carried out between enemies by creating mutual suspicion between them or by threatening one of them. Force (danda) can be used to deprive a person of his property, liberty, or life, and includes plunder, harassment, and death. These concepts can be used in isolation or combination depending on the situation. For example, Kautilya recommends the use of conciliation and placating with gifts for a son or a relative. For the citizens of the state, or members of the army, placating with gifts and/or sowing dissension works best. For neighboring princes, sowing dissension and the use of force is recommended. Kautilya shows that in the cases of allies and enemies, a combination of methods ensures success as the different techniques reinforce each other. Some methods are ideal, in particular cases, and others unnecessary. Conciliation is adequate for dealing with an enemy‘s ministers whose loyalties are uncertain, while placating with gifts for dishonest ministers of the enemy (traitors) can be efficacious. Dissensions are especially effective against confederacies, and force—properly applied at the most propitious times—is often successful against the powerful (who may find retaliation or continuing enmity cost ineffective).25 While the six measures of foreign policy are utilized by the king for statecraft, the four concepts of attitude have wider application and cross the boundaries of all.26 For instance, Kautilya recommends that the conqueror who has secured the submission of a king should treat him with honor, unless the king harbors hostile intentions. By treating the vassal unjustly, he not only faces the prospect of retaliation, he is likely to incur the wrath of the circle of states. The conqueror is required to respect the other kings in the vicinity of his kingdom, or they may unite and foil the conqueror‘s aspiration of world conquest.

Kautilya's Arthashastra a timeless grand strategy, page 27

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The Instruments of Diplomacy or Chatur Upayas

Kautilya prescribes the four upayas or ways to enforce the king's hegemony in the

mandala. These are methods of persuasion and tacit measures to get the writ of the

vijigishu running in the mandala and these are the ways to consolidate his rule. Kautilya

realized these are recognized expedients, because as a realist thinker, he knows fully well

that although trickery and deceipt play important part in politics, diplomacy by trickery

seldom helps a country to achieve its objective. The four upayas are:

Sama:

It means a general attitude of friendliness and gullible persuation, the way of polite argument, an approach based on reason and interest. Kautilya advises the vijigishu to follow this policy on the conquered ruler in order to secure his loyalty. The vijigishu must not go plundering. He must show respect to the conquered people, protect their villages, respect the women, and take care of their farms, forests, animals and livelihood. Through this policy, a weaker king can thus be brought under control. The annexation of Sikkim by India in 1975 can be cited as an example with reference to this means.

Dana:

Dana means concession. Kautilya advised the stronger rulers to make concessions

to the weaker rulers in an unequal alliance. The weaker kings can be brought into a fold

of some sort of obligation and loyalty this way. In diplomacy, if the policy of Sama is

successful but can’t produce the desired result in full, then Kautilya’s advice is to follow

the policy of Dana. It means nothing for nothing is the rule in diplomacy and for gaining

an important object one should be prepared to pay something. This includes agreement

involving loss, limitation of interest, withdrawal, something advantageous to the other

party in exchange for gaining one’s own objective. The example in this context is-- the

USSR supplied India with Heavy Water in 1978 without any corresponding return. They

did it even though the newly elected Janata Party government was not as pro-Soviet as

the Congress regime. This was done to win-win Indian sympathy towards the Russian

cause.

Bheda:

If neither persuasion nor compromise succeeds then Bheda is recommended by

Kautilya. Bheda signifies the policy of divide and rule. Kautily referred Bheda as an

important adjunct to diplomacy through which even a strong king could be brought to his

knees and a great power could be subdued. According to Kautilya, there are multiple

ways of sowing seeds of dissensions, e.g. by instigating anyone of the neighboring king, a

wild chief, a scion of enemy’s family of an imprisoned prince. Films like Sholay, A Dirty

Dozen and Shahenshah can be cited as an example in this context. Bheda was an

important means for an ancient conqueror and even today it is still used by many counties

in order to promote their national interest. The British rulers ruled India for more than

two hundred years by using this policy of divide and rule among various countries. They

also applied this policy in Malaysia by making division between Bumiputera ,on the one

side and Chinese and Indians, on the other.

Danda:

Finally, there is Danda or the use of force. Normal diplomacy includes a

judicious blend of the first three mentioned methods. But if they fail, then Danda is to be

applied. Danda means punitive measures. It means using force or other economic

measures to punish another state and forcing it to yield to the vijigishu. Kautilya also says

that it is in human nature that without Danda, there can be no obedience. In all ages, the

application of physical force irrefutably regarded as the most effective means to bring the

desired results relating to inter-state relations. Therefore, it is not necessary to equate

Danda with war. Danda was a diplomatic war and not an armed contest, rather a last

alternative before the definite commencement of fighting. Kautilya then referred 3 types

of Danda:

1. Sanctions: For example, sanctions on Libya, South Africa are examples of sanctions in the recent past.

2. Blockades: example Cuban Missile crisis

3. Refusal of right of passage, blockade, boycott, etc.

Other than these, Kautilya has also advised the vijigishu to make most of the devious ways to secure foreign interests and these include the use of spies, saboteurs and the lure of women to cause rapture and defection among enemy ranks.

Sub-methods of Diplomacy

Although the four upayas are the recognized devices for the application of six forms of

foreign policy, Kautilya further mentioned three more methods of diplomacy, viz.

Upeksha, Maya and Indrajala. Here Kautilya recognizes Upeksha, not as a separate

policy, but as an aspect of Udasina. International law always respects neutral power. This

was the ethics of the ancient India’s international law. No belligerent disturbed the king

of indifferent attitude. So, it was the privilege of the weaker power to adopt the attitude of

Upeksha and to hide his own weakness. That is why Kautilya presented the most

practical advice that even provoked a weaker should bear it and adopt the attitude of

Upeksha. Maya, according to Kautilya is a baser kind of diplomacy and it embraces

cunning and intrigue as its method. Maya is a method under Danda. Finally, Indrajala is

the use of trick for victory over the enemy.

Kautilyas Concept of Diplomacy page 16-18

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