Rivers in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्)

Rivers played a critical role in the development of human settlements and civilizations around the world. It is well known that people following the dharmik life have always attributed sacredness to all living beings and even inanimate things around them. In Vedic literature, the rivers are widely described. The rivers, which were so vital to the existence of all beings, were regarded as sacred since the earliest times. Thus we find the seers of Rgveda prayed to devatas associated with all things big and small (Adhidevata tattva). In Ramayana, ShriRama prayed to Samudra devata requesting him to make a way to reach Lanka and it was granted. It is in the Vedas that we find the roots of Adhidevata tattva, which has been incorporated in the dharmik way of living seen even today. We find many mantras offering prayers to the adhidevatas of rivers in the Rgveda. Rivers were addressed as "mother" viz., मा॒तॄन्त्सिन्धू॒न्.. just like the land of Bharata is addressed as Bharatamata, the motherland.

Many great civilizations such as the Nile Valley civilization in Egypt, flourished on the banks of a river, the Nile. Archeological evidences point to the fact that the Harappan and Indus valley civilizations flourished on the banks of rivers flowing in the northwestern region of India and they represent some of the oldest human settlements in the world.

While studying about the rivers of Rgvedic times, one must note that even though we find the same names of rivers at present in many instances, the course of the river may or mostly may not remain the same in the present times. It is well known that even now rivers change course of their flow due to various reasons. The Yangtsze river in China is one such famous example.

Introduction

Rivers mentioned in Rgveda have a great geographical importance attached to them. They help in the growth of civilizations. Such rivers were called by many terms, e.g. dhuni (2.30.2), sindhu (2.12.3 and others), nadI (2.15.3, 3.33.4) and sarit (4.58.6) etc. Mitra and Varuna are designated as sindhupatI (सिन्धु॑पती).

Nadi-sukta (नदीसुक्तम्) is a sukta dedicated to the rivers in this veda. According to Shrikant Talageri,rivers named in the Rgveda can be classified into five geographical categories:

• The Northwestern rivers (tributaries of the Indus flowing through Afghanisthan and the north):
  1. Trshtama (Gilgit)
  2. Susartu
  3. Anitabha
  4. Rasaa
  5. Sveti
  6. Kubha (Kabul)
  7. Krumu (Kurrum)
  8. Gomati (Gomal)
  9. Sarayu (Siritoi)
  10. Mehatnu
  11. Svetyaavari
  12. Prayiyu (Bara)
  13. Vayiyu
  14. Suvaastu (Swat)
  15. Gauri (Panjkora)
  16. Kushavaa (Kunar)
• The Indus river and its eastern tributaries:
  1. Sindhu (Indus)
  2. Sushoma (Sohan)
  3. Arjikiya (Haro)
• The Central rivers (rivers of the Punjab):
  1. वितस्ता - Vitasta (Jhelum)
  2. असिक्नी - Asikni or Chandrabhaga (Chenab) मरुद्वृधा - Marudvrdha (Maruvardhvan) is said to be small river, a western tributary of Chenab.
  3. परुष्णी - Parishni (Ravi)
  4. विपाश - Vipash or Vyas (Beas),
  5. शतुद्री (शतद्रू) - Shatudri or Shatadru (Sutlej)

• The East-Central rivers (rivers of Haryana):
  1. Drshadvati
  2. Apayaa
• The Eastern rivers:
  1. Ashmanvati (Assan, a tributary of the Yamuna)
  2. Yamuna/Amshumati
  3. Ganga (Jahnavi)

Many names given above are under investigation for evidences pertaining to transfer of river-names and places in geographical context are being considered. For example, JahnAvi is the name of river Ganga mentioned in the Rgveda.

The key rivers in the Rgveda may be studied under the following headings

1. The Indus river to the west of the five rivers of Punjab
2. The Sarasvati river to the east of the five rivers of Punjab
3. The Ganga and Yamuna, the easternmost rivers described in this veda

Key rivers in the Rgveda

Nadi-sukta (नदीसुक्तम्) mentioned in Mandala 10, is a sukta (75) fully dedicated to the rivers. At least nineteen rivers have been invoked in the 5th and 6th mantras of this sukta, listed from east to west, mentioning the major rivers along with the tributaries of the Sindhu river.

इ॒मं मे॑ गङ्गे यमुने सरस्वति॒ शुतु॑द्रि॒ स्तोमं॑ सचता॒ परु॒ष्ण्या । अ॒सि॒क्न्या म॑रुद्वृधे वि॒तस्त॒याऽऽर्जी॑कीये शृणु॒ह्या सु॒षोम॑या ॥५॥ (Rg.Veda. 10.75.5)

O Ganga (गङ्गा), Yamuna (यमुना), Sarasvati (सरस्वती), Shutudri (शुतुद्रि) or Shatudri, Parushni (परुष्णी), Asikni (असिक्नी), Marudvrdha (मरुद्वृधा), Vitasta (वितस्ता) along with Sushoma (सुषोमा) and Arjikiya (आर्जीकीय), accept and hear my praise for you.

Following are more details about the rivers in Rgveda.

• Rivers flow towards and empty into the sea (Rgveda 1.190.7, 6.19.5, 8.6.4)
• Seven rivers emptying into the sea has been referred in Rgveda 1.71.7.

River Sindhu

While many rivers are mentioned in the Rigveda, the term "Sapta-sindhu" appears in many instances in this veda. The Sapta-sindhu region or the land of seven rivers is also stated to be the homeland of the Rgvedic people. The word "Sapta-sindhu" means "seven rivers". The word "sapta" means the number seven, however, the word sindhu has the following connotations.

• Sindhu generally represents a river as mentioned in Rgveda, 1.27.6 and 2.25.3. It stands for a "river of the Saptasindhu" as mentioned in Rgveda 10.75.6. In the context where Sindhu and samudra are mentioned together, the sindhu means the river (3.36.6).
• Sindhu stands for river Indus, is said to be greater than all other flowing rivers as mentioned in Rgveda 10.75.1 as per Sayanacharya and other scholars such as D. C. Sircar. According to Shrikanth Talageri, however, the word Sindhu means a river and is often mistranslated as the Indus. In seven references, it refers to some other river (Vipas, Parushini, Yamuna and Sarasvati) whichever is specified within the context of the reference itself.
• Sindhu is referred to as a sea or ocean in the mantras 5.11.5 and in 7.87.6 where there is a mention of the sun setting in the sea.

In in the present day conditions, finding these seven rivers has been a little challenging owing to renaming them as well as disappearance or change of course. Many questions around the "seven rivers" have to be resolved; such as if it refers to important rivers or seven particular rivers. However, it is difficult to arrive at the rivers considered to be important in those days. We come across more than seven rivers; which of these are counted as important? Many versions about what constitute the "seven rivers" are given by various scholars. Most notably, A.C. Das and P.L. Bhargava opined that the five rivers in Punjab, शुतुद्री (Sutlej), विपाश (Beas), पुरुष्णी (Iravati present Raavi river), वितस्ता (Jhelum), असिक्नी (or Chandrabhaga presently Chenab river) along with the Sindhu and the Sarasvati - are the rivers that are accounted for the term Sapta Sindhu. D. C. Sircar states that the seven rivers are often taken to be the five rivers in Punjab together with the Indus and the Sarasvati, though some scholars are inclined to substitute the Sarasvati by the Kabul.

According to Shrikant Talageri, Saptasindhu refers to the geographic area, a specific region identified as land coursed by the five rivers plus two more, the Indus and the Sarasvati. He opines that the word Sindhu in the Rgveda primarily means 'a river' and is mistranslated as Indus; it is only secondarily a name of the Indus river (thus Saptasindhava can mean seven rivers but not seven Induses). The Saptasindhu is referred to in the following suktas and mantras of particular mandalas:

Mandala 1: 32.12; 35.8;

Mandala 2: 12.3, 12;

Mandala 4: 28.1;

Mandala 8: 54.4; 69.12; 96.1;

Mandala 9: 66.6;

Mandala 10: 43.3; 67.12

Sindhu with its tributaries like Trshtama, Susartu (Susarta), Rasa, Kubha etc falls into the western ocean as per Rgveda 5.53.9 and 10.75.6. According to D. C. Sircar, Sindhu or the Indus rises in Tibet, passes through Kashmir, the Punjab and Sind and discharges its waters into the Arabian sea. The banks of Sindhu was full of everything required by the people of that age (Rgveda. 10.75.8).

सरस्वती ॥ Sarasvati

In the Rgvedic times Sarasvati was worshipped both as a deity of learning as well as a deity of a river. She was revered as the most sacred and is the most well-known river in these texts. In the past eras the vast river gradually dried up in the desert areas of the northwestern region of India. It now remains as a small well-known river by the name 'Sarsuti'. It flowed between Yamuna and Shutudri (Sutlej) and drained into the western ocean as per Rgvedic texts. As per D. C. Sircar, Sarasvati or the modern Sarsuti rises in Sirmur, passes by Thanesar in the Ambala district and loses itself in the sands of Patiala.

In the earlier period, the territory lying between the Sarasvati and the Drshadvati called BrahmAvarta, was a holy land built by the devatas and the cradle of Vedic culture. Manusmrti mentions that

सरस्वतीदृशद्वत्योर्देवनद्योर्यदन्तरम् । तं देवनिर्मितं देशं ब्रह्मावर्तं प्रचक्षते । । २.१७ । । तस्मिन्देशे य आचारः पारम्पर्यक्रमागतः । वर्णानां सान्तरालानां स सदाचार उच्यते । । २.१८ । ।

It is in this place, BrahmAvarta, that pious sages performed the sacred ceremonies.

Sarasvati is associated with the rule of Yayati, Trtsu king Vadhyryasva etc. However, the Brahmana literature points to the evidence that drying up of Sarasvati has started. Tandya Brahmana (25.10.16) mentions that Sarasvati river has disappeared in a place called Vinashana (विनशन). Puranas mention that this river disappears outside but flows beneath the earth to meets Ganga and Yamuna rivers at Prayaga (the modern Prayagraj). In the Jaiminiya Brahmana (4.26.12) Sarasvati river is said to reappear in a place called Plaksha praasravana (प्लक्ष प्रास्रवण), Ashvalayana shrautasutra (12.6.1) mentions this place as Plaksha prasravana (प्लक्ष प्रस्रवण).

The Sarasvati river has been referred to many times in the three oldest mandalas of the Rgveda. Three whole suktas are dedicated to this river,

Mandala 6: Sukta 61

Mandala 7: Suktas 95 and 96.

It has been referred to in nine out of the ten mandalas except the 4th mandala. The Sarasvati is so important in the whole of this veda that we see it's worship as one of the three great deities in the AprI-suktas, while Indus river finds no place.

According to Shri. A. C. Das, in the Rgvedic times Sarasvati river flowed and ended its journey in what was once a vast water body in area where we now see the desert sands of Rajasthan. The Mahabharata also describes the Sarasvati as flowing westward and getting "lost in the desert". It was, according to some scholars, in this sea that Sarasvati joined and drained into. Dr. P. L. Bhargava has called this water body as Sarasvat sea of the Rgvedic times. There are at least two suktas in which Sarasvat and Sarasvati are described and that Sarasvat is that sea into which Sarasvati river had drained into. In the Rgveda we find several occurrences about the vast, swift flowing Sarasvati river.

एकाचेतत्सरस्वती नदीनां शुचिर्यती गिरिभ्य आ समुद्रात् ।.... (Rg. Veda. 7.95.2)

Here it is mentioned that Sarasvati river flows from the mountains to the sea. Dr. Bhargava gives references of Puranas and mahakavyas to support his theory that the large parts of the modern day Rajasthan was once covered by a large sea into which Sarasvati river drained into. Other investigations identify the "sea" into which the Sarasvati drained into was the present day Arabian sea.

Dr. Michel Danino, who authored the chapter: The Sarasvati River - Issues and Debates, mentions that the identification of the Ghaggar river as the Sarasvati river of the Vedic times was initially proposed in 1855 by a French geographer, Louis Vivien de Saint-Martin. He proposed this based on the surveys of the Thar Desert by British topographers, who reported the presence of a huge dry bed (the Ghaggar) between the Yamuna and Sutlej, precisely where in the Rgveda is located the Sarasvati. Many British maps (from 1760 onwards) also showed a small river named 'Soorsuty' or 'Sursooty' or 'Sarsuti' in the same location. Local tradition describes a seasonal river 'Sarsuti' as one of Ghaggar's tributaries and that there was once a vast river whose drying up caused the region's desolation. The gradual disappearance of Sarasvati is also known from the later Vedic literature, the Brahmanas, in which it is mentioned that Sarasvati breaks up at a point called Vinashana or Adarshana; and it a sacred tirtha.

Drshadvati (दृषद्वती) is a very important river of relevance here. It has been mentioned as the tributary of Sarasvati. The present day Ghaggar is identified with this river by some scholars. We saw above that this river itself is described as the present day remnant of Sarasvati while some others identify it as a tributary of the lost Sarasvati. We find its reference in the Rgveda mantra 3.23.4, as the yajnasthal of Bharatas. The place of its origin is called 'drshadvati prabhavya' as mentioned in Latyayana Shrauta sutras (10.29.9), in the Himalayan ranges. Its meeting point with Sarasvati (sangam) is called Drshadvatypyaya (दृषद्वत्यप्यय) according to Katyayana Shrautasutra). In this sangam area, there is a description about yajnas being conducted. According to the Latyayana shrautasutras, this river was described as rainfed and seasonal, with and without water as per the season.

गङ्गा ॥ Ganga

Ganga as the name of a river finds very scarce mention in the Rgveda; in one context उरुकक्षो न गाङ्ग्यः (Rgveda. 6.45.31) the word गाङ्ग्यः can be considered as indirect reference by the mention of a person originating on the banks of river Ganga. However, it is not a clear explanation. It can be said that people of those times were not familiar with this river as much as they were with Sindhu or Sarasvati rivers, according to Pt. Baldev Upadhay. But one important reference to Ganga has been made in the Nadi sukta. References to Ganga are amply found in the subsequent Brahmana and Aranyaka texts such as in Shatapatha Brahmana (13.5.4.11) and Taittriya Aranyaka (2.10).

The nadi-sukta begins with the enumeration of the rivers with the Ganga and moves westward. JahnAvI (जह्नावी) is mentioned in the Rgveda which correlates to JAhnavI (जाह्नवी) in the modern times, another name of the Ganga. JahnAvI is clearly the earlier Rgvedic form of the later word JahnAvI, the former word is not found after the Rgveda and the latter word is not found in the Rgveda. This word belongs to a class of words in the Rgveda which underwent a particular phonetic change in the course of time. Besides Yamuna or the Jumna there is no other reference at all to the other tributaries of Ganga flowing eastward.

यमुना ॥ Yamuna

Yamuna has been mentioned thrice in this Veda, the name of which is seen mentioned in Atharvaveda (4.9.10) and Aitareya Brahmana (8.83). This river is mentioned in connection with Dasharajna Yuddha (7.18.19) the famous battle of ten kings.

शुतुद्रि ॥ Shutudri or Sutlej

Shutudri or Satadru, is identified as Sutlej is mentioned in the Rgveda together with Vipaash (Beas). It is the eastern most river of the Punjab. Rising in the Himalayas, it runs through Punjab as a boundary between the Hoshiarpur and Jalandhar districts on the right and Ambala and Ludhiana districts on the left. In Ramayana this river is mentioned as Shatadru.

परुष्णी ॥ Parushni or Iravati or Ravi

Parushni, the river of Punjab mentioned in Rgveda and called in later times as Iravati, is identified as the Ravi river. It arises in Kulu in the Kangra Distric of Himachal Pradesh and joins the Chenab river. It is on the banks of this river that the famous battle of Sudas with the ten kings took place where Sudas defeated his strong rivals. It is mentioned as a deep river which was crossed by Sudas with the aid of Indra.

असिक्नी ॥ Asikni or Chandrabhaga or Chenab

Asikni (Chenab) rises in Lahul in the Himalayas and runs through Kashmir and the Punjab. It is mentioned in the Veda together with Vitasta, Marudvrdha, and Sindhu. This river appears black and hence called as Asikni. Its present names are Chandrabhaga and Chenab.

Marudvrdha (मरुद्वृधा) (10.75.5) located in the Kashmiri region, indicates that Kashmir valley could have been known to the people of those times. It is not a big river, said to be a western tributary of Chenab.

वितस्ता ॥ Vitasta or Jhelum

Vitasta, the most western of the five rivers of the Punjab has been mentioned as one of the rivers in the Nadisukta. It is famous in Kashmir as Veth. It is mentioned in the Nirukta as Vitasta, the mightly river having high banks (Nirukta. 9.26).

विपाश् ॥ Vipaash

It is identified with the river Beas (3.33.1 and 3, 4.30.31) which is also referred to as Vyas in earlier times. It is one of the five rivers of Punjab.

आर्जीकीया ॥ Arjikiya

Arjikiya is a river which is mentioned in Nirukta (9.26). According to Nirukta, this river got its name आर्जीकीया as it may have originated from the Rijika (ऋजीक) mountain or because it follows a straight path (ऋजुगामिनी). Yaska mentions that another name of this river is Vipash (विपाश्), however, more clarity is required about the name of this river. Sushoma is said to be the Sohan river flowing in the Atak district.

Tributaries of Sindhu (Indus)

While the rivers, Sindhu, Sarasvati and to a lesser extent Ganga are familiar geographical landmarks in the Rgveda, there are many other rivers described in the veda, such as those mentioned in the Nadi-sukta.

तृ॒ष्टाम॑या प्रथ॒मं यात॑वे स॒जूः सु॒सर्त्वा॑ र॒सया॑ श्वे॒त्या त्या । त्वं सि॑न्धो॒ कुभ॑या गोम॒तीं क्रुमुं॑ मेह॒त्न्वा स॒रथं॒ याभि॒रीय॑से ॥६॥ (Rg.Veda. 10.75.6)

O Sindhu! (सिन्धू), you, to meet the swift-flowing Gomati (गोमती), first joined with river Trshtama (तृ॒ष्टामा). Later you join with Susarta (सुसर्ता), Rasa (रस), Sveta (श्वेता), Kubha (कुभा), Krumu (क्रुमु), and Mehatnu (मेह॒त्नु) and travel in the same chariot (i.e., flow as one river merging along with them).

The seven tributaries of Sindhu are mentioned in this mantra. Most of the rivers mentioned here are of the Punjab and Kashmir region. The rivers that arise in Afghanistan and the Suleiman range in Pakistan and which drain into the Sindhu or Indus are Rasa, Kubha, Suvastu, Krumu and Gomati are also mentioned.

Trshtama (तृ॒ष्टामा) is the first mentioned tributary according to the Nadisukta. Presently it is known as Jasakar (जासकार) (or Zanskar river?) located in Ladakh region.

Susartu or Susarta (सुसर्ता) another tributary mentioned which is famous for flowing from south to the north. Presently called as "Khuru" it has eastern and western tributaries to it. It joins the Sindhu river after Jasakar river.

Rasa (रसा) is mentioned several times in Rgveda. It is this river that Sarama crosses to reach the Panis. Sarama and Pani Samvada is one of the important anecdotes described in the Rgveda (10.108). Many scholars equate this river to Ranha. This is the third tributary of the Sindhu and is said to be the Shebak river flowing in Kashmir in the present times.

Sveta (श्वेता) is the fourth tributary of the Sindhu river, flowing as the Gilgit river in Kashmir.

Kubha (कुभा) is one of the important tributaries (the fifth) of the Sindhu, it is identified as river Kabul in the present times. Kunar (old name Kusava) and Panjakora (old name Gauri) etc are its tributaries. A Rgveda mantra where Kubha is mentioned is as follows

मा वो॑ र॒सानि॑तभा॒ कुभा॒ क्रुमु॒र्मा व॒: सिन्धु॒र्नि री॑रमत् । मा व॒: परि॑ष्ठात् स॒रयु॑: पुरी॒षिण्य॒स्मे इत् सु॒म्नम॑स्तु वः ॥९॥ (Rg. Veda. 5.53.9)

Meaning: O Maruts! let not the Rasa, Anitabha, Kubha, Krumu and Sindhu not disturb you and rivers Purishini (which is Parushini) and Sarayu not stop your flow.

Suvastu (सुवास्तु) a river mentioned both in Rgveda (8.19.38) and Nirukta (4.15) is identified as the tributary of Kubha (Kabul). It is famous as Svat (Swat) river in Afganistan.

Sarayu (सरयु) is mentioned in a few instances in the Rgveda mantras (4.30.18, 5.53.9, 10.64.9). It is referred to as Siritoi flowing in Southern Afghanistan. A battle is referred to as taken place beyond the Sarayu under the leadership of the remote descendent of Sudas (of the Dasarajna yudda), namely Sahadeva. In this battle, (4.30.18) beyond the Sarayu, Arna and Chitraratha were killed by Indra.

Mehatnu (मेहत्नू) mentioned as the tributary (the sixth) of Sindhu in the Nadi sukta mantra, meets the Sindhu before Gomati and Krumu. In recent times, it is identified with Sawan river.

Gomati (गोमती) referred to as another tributary of the Indus river, it is identified as Gomal in the present times. It flows in Afganisthan and Pakistan. This river has been mentioned in the Ramayana.

Krumu (क्रुमु) presently referred as Kurram is a western tributary of the Sindhu.

Other Rivers

Apart from the clear references discussed above, we find other rivers mentioned in Rgveda. They include

- Anitabha (5.53.9) which is a western tributary of Sindhu

- Vyayavati (6.27.6) a river in Punjab

- Vibali (4.30.12) an unknown river

- Shifa (1.104.3) refers to a river in which the two wives of Kuyav Asura were killed.

Discussion

The Sarasvati mentioned in the Rgveda, is the river to the east of the Punjab (flowing through Haryana) and the Sarayu, and Gomati are certainly western rivers, the tributaries of the Indus, flowing west of Punjab. But a Sarasvati (Avestan is HaraxvaitI) and a Sarayu (Avestan is Haroiiu) or Siritoi are also found in Afghanistan and a Gomati and a Sarayu found in northeastern Uttar Pradesh. Clearly there has been a transfer of name, in the case of these three river-names from one river to another. Such evidences are being explored in the geographical studies of Rgveda. There is further evidence that not just the names of river but many places have also been subjected to such changes.

From the study of the rivers of Rgveda, it can be said that at that time people knew the regions like Afghanistan, Punjab, some parts of the Sindhu region, Rajputana, North-western region, Kashmir and the area extending up to the Gangetic plains.