Puranas (पुराणानि)

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Puranas (Samskrit : पुराणानि) are a large number of Bharatiya texts, based on the Vedas and Vedangas, which influence the lifestyle of people of Bharatavarsha. References to Puranas and Itihasas in the Vedas and Vedangas show the significance and ancientness of these texts. They are eighteen in number and are associated with the Upapuranas. They describe a wide variety of aspects related to the bharatiya jivana vidhana namely ceremonies, danas, festivals, cultural aspects, history, geographical location, tattvas and siddhantas of Brahman, yajnas, dharmas, lineages of rulers, origin of creation, numerous ancedotes about deities and celestial beings, tirthas, rivers, vratas, medicine, architecture, and even poetry among the many other things and actions associated with Sanatana Dharma.

Introduction

The Puranic literature holds a very special place in the life of people following Sanatana Dharma. Many scholars opine that the puranas were the main source of bhagavata katha traditions found in India; the bond that has woven the cultural threads among different peoples across the different parts of our country.

Puranic texts are usually in the form of shlokas as conversation between two or more persons, mostly involving maharshis (Saunaka, Suta, Agasthya) and the deities (Agni, Vishnu, Shiva etc) who describe events and incidents to the other rshis, rajas and devotees. Thus the literature is far popular and widely spread as through the medium of interesting ancedotes easily understood by one and all, they explain valuable virtues and dharmas. They include the stories of personalities from all walks of life; bhaktas, avataras, deities, adharmik people, women, people of different varnas and ashramas, children are all discussed there.

All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Samhitas, while Vedas are Prabhu-Samhitas. Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara.[1]

The Puranas popularised the teachings of the Vedas. They contain the essence of the Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through concrete examples, stories, legends, lives of saints, kings and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events. Many vratas (vows) have associated kathas (stories) from various Puranas. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. The ancient seers made use of Puranas to illustrate the eternal principles of dharmas for people of all ashramas. The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand deep philosophy and who could not devote time for the study the Vedas.[1]

The Darsanas and shastras are technical in nature understood by a few who pursue to study them. Through Puranas, essential common dharmas are taught in a very easy and interesting way and are heard even to this day, thus they are popular.

Special Aspects about Puranas

This section discusses about the origin, compilation and phalashruti (benefits) of Puranas. Many Puranas mention that they

  • originated from Brahma's recollection
  • that they existed across Kalpas and Yugas
  • were a single unit prior to being compiled and systematized by Vyasa into 18 Puranas in every Yuga cycle.
  • they consist of certain essential characteristics about the subject matter they contain viz., Purana Lakshana (पुराणलक्षणम्)
  • are the means to accomplish Trivarga (त्रिवर्गसाधनं । means to attain Dharma, Artha, Kama) and Punya.

Origin

Matsya, Skanda and Padma Puranas mention that the Puranas have been given to the world, after Brahma deliberated on them.

पुराणं सर्वशास्त्राणां प्रथमं ब्रह्मणा स्मृतम् अनन्तरं च वक्त्रेभ्यो वेदास्तस्य विनिर्गताः ३

पुराणमेकमेवासीत्तदा कल्पान्तरेऽनघ त्रिवर्गसाधनं पुण्यं शतकोटिप्रविस्तरम् ४ (Mats. Pura. 53.3 and 4)[2]

पुराणं सर्वशास्त्राणां प्रथमं ब्रह्मणा स्मृतम् ४५ (Padm. Pura. 1.1.45)[3]

Summary : Brahma first (recollected) remembered the Puranas in all shastras, later from him (his four faces) came the Vedas. There was only one (unit) of the Puranas at the beginning of the Kalpa.

पुरा तपश्चचारोग्रममराणां पितामहः । आविर्भूतास्ततो वेदाः सषडंगपदक्रमाः ॥ ३ ॥

ततः पुराणमखिलं सर्वशास्त्रमयं ध्रुवम् ॥ (Skan. Pura. 7.1.23-4)

Skanda Purana (7.2.5)[4] mentions that Puranas were given by Brahma (Pitamaha) who performed a severe tapas and from whom the Vedas along with the Vedangas manifested. After the Vedas all the Puranas consisting of the eternal sounds (of Vedas) extending to a hundred crore slokas manifested from the mouth of Brahma. Matsya Purana describes the origin and phalashruti of Puranas thus - the learned, those who know, say that the recitation of the list of the Puranas dealing with kalpas (records of prior events from ancient Kalpas) brings fame and longevity.

पुरातनस्य कल्पस्य पुराणानि विदुर्बुधाः धन्यं यशस्यमायुष्यं पुराणानामनुक्रमम् (Mats. Pura. 53.63)[2]

Linga purana clearly states that it was composed by Brahma based on the events that happened in the Ishana Kalpa and originally it contained a crore verses aming a hundred crore that comprised all the Puranas.

ईशानकल्पवृत्तांतमधिकृत्य महात्मना।। ब्रह्मणा कल्पितं पूर्वं पुराणं लौंगमुत्तमम्।। २.१ ।। (Ling. Pura. 1.2.1)[5]

The above reference amply supports the fact that Puranas are not myths or made up stories but they are layer of antique literature which are coming down since very large periods of time, from across the Kalpas. This fact also explains the variant versions of the same legends as they have variations in different kalpas.

In Vedas and Vedangas

Puranas find a mention in the Atharva veda; where it is said that the rks, the samans, the chandas, puranas, yajus originated from the residue (ucchista) of the yajnas.

ऋचः सामानि छन्दांसि पुराणं यजुषा सह । उच्छिष्टाज्जज्ञिरे सर्वे दिवि देवा दिविश्रितः ॥२४॥ (Athar. Veda. 11.9.24)[6]

Brhdaranyanka Upanishad ascribes the origin of the four vedas, Itihas and Puranas, Vidyas, Upanishad shlokas, sutras, their commentaries to the breath of the Mahabhuta (Virat Purusha).

वा अरेऽस्य महतो भूतस्य निःश्वसितमेतद्यदृग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्वाङ्गिरस इतिहासः पुराणं विद्या उपनिषदः श्लोकाः सूत्राण्यनुव्याख्यानानि व्याख्याननीष्टं (Brhd. Upan. 4.5.11)

Panchamaveda

Classification of Puranas

Classification of 18 Mahapuranas

Puranas have been classified based on the three gunas, Satvika, Rajasa and Tamasa. Matsya and Skanda purana (Skan. Pura. 7.2.57-58)[4] slokas clearly mention the classification of Puranas as mentioned below.

सात्त्विकेषु पुराणेषु माहात्म्यमधिकं हरेः राजसेषु च माहात्म्यमधिकं ब्रह्मणो विदुः ६८

तद्वदग्नेश्च माहात्म्यं तामसेषु शिवस्य च संकीर्णेषु सरस्वत्याः पितॄणां च निगद्यते ६९ (Mats. Pura. 53.68-69)[2]

Summary : Know that in satvika puranas the glory of Shri Hari is largely mentioned while rajasa puranas greatly mention Brahma's glory. Similarly tamasa puranas there is a mention about the glory of Agni and Shiva. In all the three types of puranas, the glory of Sarasvati and the pitrs (forefathers) have been described.

Purana List

The list of Puranas is given in many puranas such as Padmapurana, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana, Agni Purana (10.8.3), however, they differ widely in names of the puranas included and the number of slokas mentioned.

List of Maha Puranas in various puranas
Purana Name Puranas
Skanda Purana (Khanda-7 Prabhasa, Prabhasa Kshetra Mahatmya, Adhyaya 2, Shlokas 5-8)[4] Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Bhavishya, Naradiya, Markandeya, Agneya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda, Vayu Puranas
Vishnu Purana (Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6, Slokas 20-24)[7], Padma Purana (Khanda-6, Adhyaya 236, Shlokas 14-17)[8], Varaha Purana (Adhyaya 112, Shlokas 74-77)[9] Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and Brahmanda Puranas
Garuda Purana (Khanda-1 Acharakhanda, Adhyaya 223, Shlokas 15-16)[10]

Kurma Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1, Shlokas 13-15)[11]

Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and Vayu

The Brahma Purana - twenty-five thousand The Padma Purana - twelve thousand The Vishnu Purana - thirteen thousand The Vayu Purana - fourteen thousand The Bhagavata Purana - eighteen thousand The Narada Purana - twenty-five thousand The Markandeya Purana - nine thousand The Agni Purana - twelve thousand The Brahmavaivarta Purana - eighteen thousand The Linga Purana - eleven thousand The Varaha Purana - fourteen thousand The Skanda Purana - eighty-four thousand The Vamana Purana - ten thousand The Kurma purana - eight thousand The Matsya Purana - thirteen thousand The Garuda Purana - eight thousand The Brahmanda Purana - twelve thousand The only mahapurana which is missing from the above list is the Bhavishya Purana.Agni purana 10.8.3

The Eighteen Puranas[1]

Ved Vyas created numerous puranas like - Brahma Purana, Padma-Purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagawat Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Narad Purana, Markandeya Puran, Agni Puran, Brahma Vaivarta Puran, Linga Puran, Varah Puran, Kurma Puran, Matsya Puran, Garuda Puran, Vaman Puran, Skanda Puran and Brahmanda Puran. Shivamahapuranam 5.5.15[12]

There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas. The main Puranas are:

Of these, six are Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu. Six are Rajasic and glorify Brahma. Six are Tamasic and they glorify Siva.

The most renowned among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana. The most popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes Vishnu Purana.

Devi Mahatmya[1]

A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well known to all Hindus as Chandi or Devi Mahatmya. Its theme is worship of God as the Divine Mother. Chandi is read widely by the Hindus on sacred days and Navaratri (Durga Puja) days.

The Srimad Bhagavata Purana and the Ten Avataras[1]

The Srimad Bhagavata Purana is a chronicle of the various Avataras of Lord Vishnu. There are ten Avataras of Vishnu. The aim of every Avatara is to save the world from some great danger, to destroy the wicked and protect the virtuous. The ten Avataras are:

The object of the Matsya Avatara was to save Vaivasvata Manu from destruction by a deluge. The object of Kurma Avatara was to enable the world to recover some precious things which were lost in the deluge. The Kurma gave its back for keeping the churning rod when the Gods and the Asuras churned the ocean of milk. The purpose of Varaha Avatara was to rescue, from the waters, the earth which had been dragged down by a demon named Hiranyaksha. The purpose of Narasimha Avatara, half-lion and half-man, was to free the world from the oppression of Hiranyakasipu, a demon, the father of Bhakta Prahlada. The object of Vamana Avatara was to restore the power of the gods which had been eclipsed by the penance and devotion of King Bali. The object of Parasurama Avatara was to deliver the country from oppression of the the Kshatriya rulers. Parasurama destroyed the Kshatriya race twenty-one times. The object of Rama was to destroy the wicked Ravana. The object of Sri Krishna Avatara was to destroy Kamsa and other demons, and to deliver His wonderful message of the Gita in the Mahabharata war. The object of Buddha Avatara was to prohibit animal sacrifices and teach piety. The object of the Kalki Avatara is the destruction of the wicked and the re-establishment of virtue.[1]

The Tamil Puranas[1]

Lord Siva incarnated himself in the form of Dakshinamurti to impart knowledge to the four Kumaras. He took human form to initiate Sambandhar, Manikkavasagar, Pattinathar. He appeared in flesh and blood to help his devotees and relieve their sufferings. The divine Lilas of Lord Siva are recorded in the Tamil Puranas like Siva Purana, Periya Purana, Siva Parakramam and Tiruvilayadal Purana.

The Upa-Puranas[1]

The eighteen Upa-Puranas are:

Sanatkumara, Narasimha, Brihannaradiya, Sivarahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa and Hamsa.

Texts

Mahapuranas

Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas.[13] These are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way.

S.No. Purana name Verses number Comments
1 Agni 15,400 verses Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of Mithila (Bihar and neighboring states), cultural history, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on proper causes for war, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu Shastra (architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, rituals and numerous other topics.[14]
2 Bhagavata 18,000 verses The most studied and popular of the Puranas,[15][16] telling of Vishnu's Avatars, and of Vaishnavism. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[17] Numerous inconsistent versions of this text and historical manuscripts exist, in many Indian languages.[18] Influential and elaborated during Bhakti movement.[19]
3 Brahma 10,000 verses Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many Mahapuranas lists put it first of 18.[20] The text has 245 chapters, shares many passages with Vishnu, Vayu, Markendeya Puranas, and with the Mahabharata. Includes mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other cultural topics. Describes holy places in Odisha, and weaves themes of Vishnu and Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity Brahma despite the title.[20]
4 Brahmanda 12,000 verses One of the earliest composed Puranas, it contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[17] Includes Lalita Sahasranamam, law codes, system of governance, administration, diplomacy, trade, ethics. Old manuscripts of Brahmanda Purana have been found in the Hindu literature collections of Bali, Indonesia.[21][22]
5 Brahmavaivarta 17,000 verses Discusses Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha, Devis, Vishnu, Krishna and Radha. Primarily mythology, love and seduction stories of gods and goddesses.[23] Mentions geography and rivers such as Ganga to Kaveri.
6 Garuda 19,000 verses An encyclopedia of diverse topics.[22] Primarily about Vishnu, but praises all gods. Describes how Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma collaborate. Many chapters are a dialogue between Vishnu and the bird-vehicle Garuda. Cosmology, Describes cosmology, relationship between gods. Discusses ethics, what are crimes, good verses evil, various schools of Hindu philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with "karma and rebirth", includes Upanishadic discussion of self-knowledge as a means of moksha.[24] Includes chapters on rivers, geography of Bharat (India) and other nations on earth, types of minerals and stones, testing methods for stones for their quality, various diseases and their symptoms, various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis, astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home, essential features of a temple, rites of passage, virtues such as compassion, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king, politics, state officials and their roles and how to appointment them, genre of literature, rules of grammar, and other topics.[24] The final chapters discuss how to practice Yoga (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal development and the benefits of self-knowledge.[24]
7 Kurma 17,000 verses Is the second of ten major avatars of Lord Vishnu.
8 Linga 11,000 verses Discusses Lingam, symbol of Shiva, and origin of the universe. It also contains many stories of Lingam, one of which entails how Agni Lingam solved a dispute between Vishnu and Brahma.
9 Markandeya 9,000 verses Describes Vindhya Range and western India. Probably composed in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti rivers, in Maharashtra and Gujarat.[25] Named after sage Markandeya, a student of Brahma. Contains chapters on dharma and on Hindu epic Mahabharata.[26] The Purana includes Devi Mahatmyam of Shaktism.
10 Matsya 14,000 verses An encyclopedia of diverse topics.[22] Narrates the story of Matsya, the first of ten major Avatars of Vishnu. Likely composed in west India, by people aware of geographical details of the Narmada river. Includes legends about Brahma and Saraswati.[27] It also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[17]
11 Narada 25,000 verses Also called Naradiya Purana. Discusses the four Vedas and the six Vedangas. Dedicates one chapter each, from Chapters 92 to 109, to summarize the other 17 Maha Puranas and itself. Lists major rivers of India and places of pilgrimage, and a short tour guide for each. Includes discussion of various philosophies, soteriology, planets, astronomy, myths and characteristics of major deities including Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Krishna, Rama, Lakshmi and others.[28]
12 Padma 55,000 verses A large compilation of diverse topics. The north Indian manuscripts of Padma Purana are very different than south Indian versions, and the various recensions in both groups in different languages (Devanagari and Bengali, for example) show major inconsistencies.[29] Describes cosmology, the world and nature of life from the perspective of Vishnu. Discusses festivals, numerous legends, geography of rivers and regions from northwest India to Bengal to the kingdom of Tripura, major sages of India, various Avatars of Vishnu and his cooperation with Shiva, the story of Rama-Sita that is different than the Hindu epic Ramayana.[30] Like Skanda Purana, it is a detailed treatise on travel and pilgrimage centers in India.[30][31]
13 Shiva 24,000 verses Discusses Shiva, and stories about him.
14 Skanda 81,100 verses Describes the birth of Skanda (or Karthikeya), son of Shiva. The longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.[32]
15 Vamana 10,000 verses Describes North India, particularly Himalayan foothills region.
16 Varaha 24,000 verses Primarily Vishnu-related worship manual, with large Mahatmya sections or travel guide to Mathura and Nepal.[33] Presentation focuses on Varaha as incarnation of Narayana, but rarely uses the terms Krishna or Vasudeva.[33] Many illustrations also involve Shiva and Durga.[34]
17 Vayu 24,000 verses Possibly the oldest of all Maha Puranas. Some medieval Indian texts call it Vayaviya Purana. Mentioned and studied by Al Biruni, the 11th century Persian visitor to India. Praises Shiva. Discusses rituals, family life, and life stages of a human being. The content in Vayu Purana is also found in Markandeya Purana. Describes south India, particularly modern Telangana and Andhra Pradesh regions. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[17]
18 Vishnu 23,000 verses One of the most studied and circulated Puranas, it also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[17] Better preserved after the 17th century, but exists in inconsistent versions, more ancient pre-15th century versions are very different from modern versions, with some versions discussing Buddhism and Jainism. Some chapters likely composed in Kashmir and Punjab region of South Asia. A Vaishnavism text, focussed on Vishnu.[35]

The Mahapuranas have also been classified based on a specific deity, although the texts are mixed and revere all gods and goddesses:

Brāhma:[29] Brahma Purana, Padma Purana
Surya:[29] Brahma Vaivarta Purana
Agni:[29] Agni Purana
Śaiva:[29] Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Varaha Purana, Vāmana Purana, Kūrma Purana, Matsya Purana, Mārkandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Brahmānda Purana
Vaiṣṇava:[29] Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Vayu Purana, Varaha Purana

The Padma Purana, Uttara Khanda (236.18-21),[36] itself a Vaishnava Purana, classifies the Puranas in accordance with the three gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and ignorance.

Sattva
("truth")		 Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
Rajas
("passion")		 Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
Tamas
("ignorance")		 Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana

All major Puranas contain sections on Devi (goddesses) and Tantra, but of these the six most significant ones are: Markandeya Purana, Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Agni Purana and Padma Purana.[37]

Influence

Om Prakash states the Puranas served as efficient medium for cultural exchange and popular education in ancient and medieval India.[38] These texts adopted, explained and integrated regional deities such as Pashupata in Vayu Purana, Sattva in Vishnu Purana, Dattatreya in Markendeya Purana, Bhojakas in Bhavishya Purana.[38] Further, states Prakash, they dedicated chapters to "secular subjects such as poetics, dramaturgy, grammar, lexicography, astronomy, war, politics, architecture, geography and medicine as in Agni Purana, perfumery and lapidary arts in Garuda Purana, painting, sculpture and other arts in Vishnudharmottara Purana".[38]

Indian Arts

The cultural influence of the Puranas extended to Indian classical arts, such as songs, dance culture such as Bharata Natyam in south India[39] and Rasa Lila in northeast India,[40] plays and recitations.[41]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 41-45
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Matsya Purana (Adhyaya 53)
  3. ↑ Padma Puranam (Khanda 1 Srustikhandam)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Skanda Purana (Prabhasa Khanda, Prabhasa Kshetra Mahatmya, Adhyaya 2)
  5. ↑ Linga Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 2) in sa.wikisource.org
  6. ↑ Atharva Veda (Kanda 11, Sukta 9)
  7. ↑ Vishnupurana (Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6)
  8. ↑ Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org
  9. ↑ Varaha Purana (Adhyaya 112) in sa.wikisource.org
  10. ↑ Garuda Purana (Acharakhanda, Adhyaya 223) in sa.wikisource.org
  11. ↑ Kurma Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1) in sa.wikisource.org
  12. ↑ 18 Puranas - English Translation by Dharmic Scriptures Team
  13. ↑ Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, ISBN 978-8120839724, page xii, 4
  14. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 134-137
  15. ↑ Thompson, Richard L. (2007). The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 10. ISBN 978-81-208-1919-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  16. ↑ Monier-Williams 1899, p. 752, column 3, under the entry Bhagavata.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 115-121 with footnotes
  18. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 139-149
  19. ↑ Hardy 2001
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 154-156
  21. ↑ H Hinzler (1993), Balinese palm-leaf manuscripts, In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, Manuscripts of Indonesia 149 (1993), No 3, Leiden: BRILL, page 442
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 78-79
  23. ↑ Giorgio Bonazzoli (1977), Seduction Stories in the Brahmavaivarta Purana, Purana, Vol. XIX, No. 2, pages 321-341
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 MN Dutt, The Garuda Purana Calcutta (1908)
  25. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 70-71
  26. ↑ RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 8-11
  27. ↑ Catherine Ludvik (2007), Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004158146, pages 139-141
  28. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 202-203
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 59-61
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 209-215
  31. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 281-283 with footnotes on page 553
  32. ↑ Doniger 1993, pp. 59–83
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 RC Hazra (1940), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass (1987 Reprint), ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 96-97
  34. ↑ Wilson, Horace H. (1864), The Vishṅu Purāṅa: a system of Hindu mythology and tradition Volume 1 of 4, Trübner, p. LXXI<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  35. ↑ Lochtefeld, James G. (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z, The Rosen Publishing Group, p. 760, ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  36. ↑ Wilson, H. H. (1840). The Vishnu Purana: A system of Hindu mythology and tradition. Oriental Translation Fund. p. 12.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  37. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 113-114, 153-154, 161, 167-169, 171-174, 182-187, 190-194, 210, 225-227, 242
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Om Prakash (2004), Cultural History of India, New Age, ISBN 978-8122415872, pages 33-34
  39. ↑ Katherine Zubko (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201
  40. ↑ Guy Beck (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201
  41. ↑ Ilona Wilczewska (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 202-220
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