Gurukula (गुरुकुलम्)

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Gurukula (Samskrit : गुरुकुलम्) is the place of learning for students after undergoing Upanayana, under the supervision of a reputed Guru. Gurukula system was an important unique feature of ancient education system but has now lost its glory owing to the present day educational system.

One can see numerous instances of principles and postulates of the educational practices from the ancient works. Education was regarded as the source of that Jnana which leads its recipients to successfully overcome difficulties and problems of life and take the path of Moksha. It was therefore insisted to be thorough, efficient with the goal of training experts in different branches. Since printing and paper were unknown, libraries and books did not exist, training essentially focused on developing memory that would stand good stead throughout the student's life.

Guru Shishya Parampara Courtesy: Cover Image of Book 'Sarwang' Published by Adivasi Lok Kala Evam Boli Vikas Academy, Madhya Pradesh Sanskriti Parishad

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

Education was regarded as the best agency for improving society at all times and hence focus was that it should be available to all those who are qualified to receive it. Upanayana was the samskara, that was usually performed, to mark the initiation of a child (of all varnas and both genders) into education. It was further declared in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad that

... विद्यया देवलोको देवलोको वै लोकाना श्रेष्ठस् तस्माद्विद्यां प्रशसन्ति ॥ यद्वै किञ्चानूक्तम् तस्य सर्वस्य ब्रह्मेत्येकता .... तस्मात् पुत्रमनुशिष्टं लोक्यमाहुस् तस्मादेनमनुशासति । (Brha. Upan. 1.5.16 and 17)

... vidyayā devaloko devaloko vai lokānā śreṣṭhas tasmādvidyāṁ praśasanti ॥ yadvai kiñcānūktam tasya sarvasya brahmetyekatā .... tasmāt putramanuśiṣṭaṁ lokyamāhus tasmādenamanuśāsati ।

One can attain the devaloka through vidya alone; devaloka being the best of the (three) worlds. Hence vidya is to be praised. (Here vidya is taken to mean meditation or that knowledge of Self required for attaining the higher worlds). Whatever is studied is all unified in the word Brahman.... Therefore they speak of an educated son as being conducive to the world. Hence (a father) teaches his son (Page No 230 of Reference ).

Thus we see that the goal of education is attainment of Self knowledge. Thus people of different varnas irrespective of their gender, social and financial status, received at least the rudiment of literary and religious education, until the first millennium of the Christian era when conducting upanayanas decreased among the varnas and girls were married at the age of 10 owing to several causes.

Subjects of Education

The word Vidya (विद्या), which again devoid of an English equivalent, deals with that procedural knowledge essential for understanding the philosophical and theological aspects of Sanatana Dharma. Ancient seers had holistic perspective as to why a student should be given the knowledge of Atmavidya in different forms such as Brahmavidya, Bhumavidya, Panchagnividya, each of which was one way to achieve the common goal of Moksha. It may appear that preceptors of the ancient ages have focused only on the ultimate spiritual goal of Atmavidya (attainment of the knowledge of the the Self) which is more a personal goal for the student.

However, one may note that education consisted of imparting Chaturdasha Vidyas (and Astadasha Vidyas) dealt in our Vaidika Vangmaya by Gurus to students before giving them the ultimate specialized knowledge, exemplified by many examples of Vedic preceptors even in the more recent millennium.

Vidya (knowledge), pertaining to a single knowledge system (Brahmavidya etc) of the olden days gradually got absorbed into Vedanta system, a broader heading covering all such specialized topics. Gradually as studying vedas required more understanding, the study of Shad Vedangas, the subjects explaining the Vedas themselves gained more significance. Some of the Vedangas such as Shiksha, Vyakarana, Jyotisha, became highly specialized themselves and needed years of study. Vidya (education) came to represent concept based knowledge systems of Shastras of all kinds. The Shad Vedangas, Shad Darshanas and Upavedas gave rise to many subjects such as Ganita (Mathematics), Nyaya (Judicial system) and Nyaya (Logic). Ayurveda ramified into minor specialisations with Shastrachikitsa and Kayachikitsa, Rasayana shastra dealt with chemistry, Bhoutika shastra included physics. The knowledge of alloys, metallurgy, geology, botany sciences, warfare, architecture, large scale constructions, all such topics developed over a period of time into professional subjects.

Goals of Education

We see in the cultures of ancient Greece and Europe that the ideal of personal culture loomed large in the educational system. Ancient Indian system, however, focused on the fact that an individual exists more for society than otherwise. From a very young age, a child is groomed into the socio-cultural fabric of the society with less emphasis on personal subjects such as music, painting and fine arts which were not taken as general education topics. Education was also not dominated by the military ideal hence it was not part of the mainstream topics.

Jesuitical education aimed at creating an army of faithful and resolute servants of the Catholic church, the goal of which was to establish missionaries and spread the religion. It may be clarified that Ancient Indian system of education colonially projected to be tainted with lines such as "Brahmanas controlled education", was never so narrow in aim, for the youth they trained often were not subservient unquestioning blind followers but often questioned the traditional beliefs and sought for the rationale in the system. Many new theories of Indian knowledge systems, and siddhantas of subjects stand proud witness to the fact that Indian education always promoted dynamic dharmik thought processes. Prabhakara Guru's school of Mimamsa developed as he believed in perspectives different from those of Kumarila Bhatta's Mimamsa theories and convincingly articulated them. The Vedic shakas themselves arose due to slight differences in pronunciation or arrangement of mantras which were preserved by the particular group of people. It is clear that no other nation had so many original, ingenious ideas, concepts and supporting explanations (vadas) as seen in the land of Bharatavarsha for a vast majority of subjects of study.

Ancients believed that education was primarily for piety and wisdom, virtue, manners and learning for a useful profession. The more recent education system of the Industrial Revolution age laid emphasis on building a robotic skilled worker, creating a mechanical workforce, working skillfully, justly in both public and private enterprises. Standardization and automatisation has further brought down creative thinking and ingenuity. However, our ancients gave more importance to personal capabilities and held that not all people are versatile in a particular skillset and thus differentiation of functions and training was enforced for different classes of people performing various duties.

Nations such as America which had a relatively recent national culture stressed on moral character and social efficiency (personal development) and not mere erudition and culture as the important goals of education system. Indian system had achieved these two (character and social efficiency) characteristics and hence sought to preserve the qualities by enforcing the cultural preservation.

Social fabric was well-knit in our ancient society system (Varna System) and different classes of people complemented each other in bringing about social efficiency. Thus ancient Indian education provided education to each class, suitable for its own needs and family traditions, without repressing talent, unlike the Soviet nations' system of education which directed education to bring about equality in the society by upliftment of the weaker sections. Modern education system in India brought in by the English Colonial rulers is dominated by the aim of passing examinations with highest honours; an aim which was practically non-existent in ancient India.

With this significant background about the ancient education system of India, we now look into that unique Guru-shisya parampara maintained by the Gurukula system of education, which has shaped Bharat's young minds from ages and the need to continue the system even in the present day. In the following section we discuss the qualities of the Guru and shishya who are the primary persons of the Gurukula system.

Preceptors and Receptors of Education

In this section we discuss the most common yet significant terms used in Sanatana Dharma regarding those who impart and seek knowledge. It is unfortunate that such sacred terms such as Guru are loosely used in society in the present days.

Sanatana Dharma has held a high regard for the preceptors, the seers who imparted knowledge and were founders of a lineage of students. Whether living in recluse in forests or in cities or Gurukulas, shaping the future generations had always rested on the shoulders of Gurus and Acharyas. The difference between the different terms referring to preceptors are explained as follows as compiled from different texts namely the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas and the dharmashastras.

आचार्यः ॥ Acharya

An Acharya is one who follows what he preaches is an Acharya. A brief compilation of various definitions of Acharya from different texts are given below.

Taittriya Upanishad

वेदमनूच्याचार्योऽन्तेवासिनमनुशास्ति - सत्यं वद , धर्मं चर ... (तैत्तिरीयोप. शीक्षावल्ली)

Vayu Purana

वृद्धा ह्यलोलुपाश्चैव आत्मवन्तो ह्यदम्भकाः। सम्यग्विनीता ऋजवस्तानाचार्यान् प्रचक्षते ।। ५९.२९ ।। (Vayu. Pura. 59.29)

आचिनोति च शास्त्रार्थम् आचारे स्थापयत्यपि । स्वयमाचरते यस्मात् आचार्यस्तेन चोच्यते ॥  (Vayu. Pura. 59.30)

Brahmanda Purana

वृद्धाश्चालोलुपाश्चैव त्वात्मवन्तो ह्यदांभिकाः ।। सम्यग्विनीता ऋजवस्तानाचार्यान्प्रजक्षते ।। ३२.३१ ।। (Brah. Pura. 1.2.32.31)

स्वयमाचरते यस्मादाचारं स्थापयत्यपि ।। आचिनोति च शास्त्राणि आचार्यस्तेन चोच्यते ।। ३२.३२ ।। (Brah. Pura. 1.2.32.32)

The summary of the Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana slokas are as follows

They call these persons Acharyas - old men devoid of greediness, who are self-possessed and devoid of arrogance, straight-forward and who are educated and self disciplined.

An acharya is one who fully understands the conclusions of the various scriptures and practices it (Dharma). He who establishes the code of conduct and puts together (to master and practice) the various texts - such a person is called Acharya.

Manusmrti

उपनीय तु यः शिष्यं वेदमध्यापयेद्द्विजः । साङ्गं सरहस्यं च तमाचार्यं प्रचक्षते ॥ (Manu. Smrti 2.140)

Manu describes Acharya as one who performs Upanayana samskara of his student and teaches him the Vedas along with the Upangas.

उपाध्यायः ॥ Upadhyaya

Manu defines Upadhyaya as follows

एकदेशं तु वेदस्य वेदाङ्गान्यपि वा पुनः । योऽध्यापयति वृत्त्यर्थमुपाध्यायः स उच्यते ॥ २.१४१ (Manu. Smrti 2.141)

Upadhyaya is one who imparts the knowledge of Vedas and Vedangas as a profession (वृत्त्यर्थम्) to the student.

गुरुः ॥ Guru

Manu defines a Guru as follows

निषेकादीनि कर्माणि यः करोति यथाविधि । सम्भावयति चान्नेन स विप्रो गुरुरुच्यते ॥ २.१४२ ॥ (Manu. Smrti 2.142)

That Brahmana who prescribes Garbhadana and other samskaras according to the procedures in the shastras to the parents (meaning samskaras starting from the conception of the child) and nourishes by providing food (meaning helps in raising the child) - he is called a Guru. As per Medatithi and Mitaksarakara, Manu intends Guru to mean the father himself. (Reference Prof. J. S. R. Prasad in BVP Forum) The one who imparts that knowledge for the attainment of Moksha is a Guru. (Manu Smrti 12.83)

यिक्तियुक्तं वचो ग्राह्यं न ग्राह्यं गुरुगौरवत् । सर्वशास्त्ररहस्यं तद् याज्ञवल्क्येन भाषितम् ॥ याज्ञवल्क्यशिक्षा , 232

Student

Guru

Atharvaveda clearly extols the greatness of the mother, the father and the Guru. 11.5.3

गृणाति उपदिशति तात्त्विकमर्थम् इति गुरुः -- शिवसूत्रविमर्शिनी

Kinds of gurus

suchaka, vachaka, bodhaka, nishiddhaguru, vihitaguru, karanaguru, paramaguru, mahaguru,

Gurugita slokas 160 to 171

subhashita pustakabhandagaram, samanya neetulu 257 sloka, 159 page

Aims of Gurukula System

The Gurukula system was the mainstream education system till as recent as the first millenium which necessitated the stay of a student away from his home at the house or ashrama of Guru (teacher) who imparted valuable life lessons to the student. The direct aim of all education, literary or professional, was to make the student fit to deal with the problems in life, train him to develop those qualities that would make him a beneficial member of the society.

Imparting Dharmika Principles

Life in ancient Bharat was rooted in Dharma and associated activities. Activities or jivana vidhana involved being in constant communion with the Self and thus many preceptors, the rshis lived simple lives. The procedures of yajnas performed for the welfare of all beings in the world, vratas, nityakarmas (agnihotra, prayer to Surya etc) - all were to inculcate piousness and compassion in the young student, the bearer of the future generations. He is trained to control his senses and the rigorous spiritual background imbibed is expected to restrain the student from temptations of life. The setting was the ashram, the very atmosphere impresses upon him that through the body (a product of nature) the higher spiritual realms are to be achieved by his inner Self (along with buddhi and manas are to be directed towards Paramatman). To achieve this the Guru imparts those laws which govern the conduct thereby moulding his character for life.

Limitations on Spiritual Practices

Although the gurukula system provided the dharmika and paramatmika jnana, the aim was not to induce the student immediately into a path for search of Brahman and turn him into a sanyasi. It is well known that maharshis had huge following of students involved in Vedic studies yet only a miniscule number of them pursued the spiritual journey (remaining as brahmacharis) while vast majority of them became grhasthas and spread the yajnika practices in the society. Thus role of Gurus was two fold - create new preceptors who spread the dharmika procedures in society and guide those students on the spiritual quest.

Character Building

Although Vedas and spiritual quest was regarded highly, maharshis, the educationalists, unhesitatingly declared that a person of good character with minimal knowledge of the Vedas is to be preferred to a scholar, who though well versed in the Vedas, led an impure life of lowly thoughts and habits. Importance of character has been stressed in many ancient texts

सावित्रीमात्रसारोऽपि वरं विप्रः सुयन्त्रितः । नायन्त्रितस्त्रिवेदोऽपि सर्वाशी सर्वविक्रयी । । २.११८ । । sāvitrīmātrasāro'pi varaṁ vipraḥ suyantritaḥ । nāyantritastrivedo'pi sarvāśī sarvavikrayī । । 2.118 । । (Manu. Smri. 2.118)

धर्म हि यो वर्धयते स पण्डितः । dharma hi yo vardhayate sa paṇḍitaḥ । (Maha. Shan. Parv. 12.321.78)

He alone is learned (jnani) who contributes to growth of dharma. Maharshis were well aware that power without virtue and intellect without moral and spiritual disciplining led to disastrous consequences, hence emphasis was on learning along with building character.

The tree of education ought to flower in wisdom as well as in virtue, in knowledge as well as in manners.

Gurukulas had the conducive methods to shape a student's character which included

• right natural surroundings
• direct instructions of vidhis (injunctions)
• direct and personal supervision by teachers (both on moral and intellectual behaviour)
• performing activities and nityakarmas (showed students the strict narrow path of duty)
• powerful reinforcement through examples of great personalities

Student Discipline

There is a misplaced impression that education system in ancient India suppressed personality development by imposing a uniform course of education enforcing it with an iron discipline (Page 12 of ). Although theoretically practice of hereditary profession was advocated freedom to enterprising individuals was never restricted. Restrictions on the whole Brahmana community to devote twelve years to the task of memorizing the Vedic tests was also not compelled, only a section of them dedicated themselves while the rest of the community learnt those sections of veda mantras that were to be used on the daily basis and were allowed to choose subjects of their choice such as tarka, nyaya, vedanta and other shastras. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas never took seriously to the Vedic learning and trained in the requisite shastras like the Brahmanas. It is wrong to conclude from passages (such as Manu. Smrt. 2.168 and 3.1) that Manusmrti emphasizes that the vedic study was compelled for Brahmanas

योऽनधीत्य द्विजो वेदं अन्यत्र कुरुते श्रमम् । स जीवन्नेव शूद्रत्वं आशु गच्छति सान्वयः । । २.१६८ (Manu. Smrt. 2.168)

A dvija who does not study the vedas and takes up efforts to study other shastras, such a person, while living, attains the state of a shudra along with his descendents.(Page 456 of Reference ). Here the context of the passages have to be considered while arriving at a conclusion.

Students were taught to be self disciplined and instilled with value systems from a very young age based on their personal capacity.

Development of Personality

The development of personality was one of the important aims of the education system. He was instilled with self-confidence, self-respect by inculcating the virtue of self-restraint and by fostering the powers of discrimination and judgement. The student was always reminded to be the custodian and torch bearer of the culture of the race and its welfare depended upon his proper conduct of his duties. Supporting a poor student was the sacred duty of the society. Students were given utmost importance in society for they were the future custodians of the society.

Influence of Self-confidence

The Upanayana ritual used to foster self-confidence by pointing out that divine powers would cooperate and support a student if he did his duty well. Poverty was not a limiting factor, for people respected and were morally obligated to support the ideal students who subsisted by begging his daily food. Gurukula system also supported the students who resided with the Guru's family and actively participated in household chores and service to Guru. Willingness to perform activities according to his capacity developed self-reliance and identify his expertise areas. Self-reliance is the mother of self-confidence and the ancient educational system sought to develop it in a variety of ways. Educational system was such that problems such as uncertainty of the future prospects, overcrowding in a particular discipline of study, cut-throat competition in professions were unknown and did not dampen the self confidence of the students.

Influence of Self-restraint

The element of self-restraint, primarily inculcated by the system, arose from simplicity in life and habits. The values of essential needs of food, clothing and shelter were significantly emphasized on. A brahmachari was to have one simple full meal (either through Bhiksha or provided by the Guru's family), and appropriate sufficient clothing (floppishness, flamboyant or grandness were not allowed). All his student life a brahmachari was taught to engage in learning skills to enable him to be an efficient and healthy grihastha in his upcoming grihasthashrama. A brahmachari was allowed to have recreations that were not to be frivolous and lead a life of perfect chastity. Thus educationalists aimed at promotion of self-restraint through development of proper habits, understanding through reasoning and value of simple lifestyle dispelling self-repression. Neither was this self-restraint enforced by correction and punishment nor by force. A brahmachari would be educated that in his next ashrama (grhastha) he would have a different set of rules to enjoy the pleasures of life, experience the bounties of food, clothing, wealth etc and so he is trained to discharge his duties carefully.

Development of Discrimination and Judgment

Study of shastras like Tarka, Nyaya, Mimamsa etc promoted the powers of discrimination and judgement which are necessary for the development of proper personality. Students of such subjects are exposed to controversies involved and so are trained to view perspectives of both sides of arguments, form his judgement and defend his position in literary debates. In ancient days, education system supported healthy debates of different kinds and students greatly sharpened their intellectual skills on such occasions. Vedic students had a different intellectual exercise which required mechanical training of memory and played the important role of preserving vedic literature when paper and printing were unavailable. Thus education system promoted the development of mental skills of concentration, focus, memory, judgment, discrimination, verbal expression and healthy competition.

Household Chores and Social Duties

While a student sharpened his mental skills, ancient educationalists also emphasized on instilling responsibility in a student by the inculcation of civic and social duties. At the gurukula, no one led a self-centered life. Students participated in community activities starting from cleaning yajna untensils, maintaining the ashrama, tending to cows and animals coexisting with them and performed agricultural duties (see Dhaumya's students). Thus humility, compassion to all, team spirit, sharing with others, self-reliance, problem-solving were the naturally and unconsciously inculcated values in them. The whole of Shikshavalli of Taittriyopanishad stresses the importance of duties of the student and the famous convocation address in 11th Anuvaka of Taittriya Upanishad, sums up the importance of these duties starting with Speaking the truth and Practicing Dharma.

सत्यं वद । धर्मं चर । स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः । (Tait. Upan. 1.11.1)

A student is enjoined to perform his duties as a son, a husband, a father conscientiously and efficiently. His wealth is not to be utilized solely for his own or family's wants, he is taught to be hospitable and charitable with duties even to the other creatures and beings.

Professions were based on highest codes of honour, which laid stress on the civic responsibilities of their members. A physician was to serve selflessly, and a warrior was not to attack his opponent indiscriminately. Moral values were so greatly enmeshed in the social fabric that Governments were there only to monitor the larger enforcement of the system.

Promotion of Social Efficiency

Education was not merely for sake of imparting cultural knowledge and its preservation nor for developing intellectual prowess without any usage. The Gurukulas were not just the centers for knowledge transfer but also trained individuals for knowledge translation (putting it to use) for development of social efficiency. Varna System was interlinked to the educational system to efficiently manage the division of work for social efficiency. The theory of division of work was mainly governed in later times by the principle of heredity. Although the rising generation could train in any branch of knowledge, profession and industry, the system directed the individual's training in more or less predetermined spheres of social duties of that family.

We have many instances where exceptional talent crossed the limits of the Varna system and selected the profession it liked; Brahmanas and Vaishyas as kings and warriors, Kshatriyas (Pravahana Jaivali, a Maharaja, taught Brahmavidya to Uddalaka and Shvetaketu who were brahmins) and Shudras (Shankaracharya gained Brahmajnana from a Chandala) were philosophers and preceptors, make their appearance throughout our ancient history.

However, it was deemed to be in the interest of the common man that he should follow his family's calling. Each trade, guild and family trained its children in its own profession. This system may have sacrificed the individual choices and educational interests of a few, but was undoubtedly in the best interest of the social fabric. An agriculturist having the practical knowledge of identifying rain bearing clouds is taught to his children and the art of warfare is best understood and experienced by the child born in a kshatriya family. Thus knowledge and profession were integrated as seen in the Varna system. Differentiation of functions and their specialization in hereditary families naturally heightened the efficiency of trades and professions thereby leading to social efficiency. A holistic education pattern was seen wherein the rising generation was exposed to different branches of knowledge with specialization in family profession.

Preservation and Spread of Culture

One of the important aims of education was to preserve and spread the national heritage and culture. As seen above education was the chief means of social and cultural continuity. The vast amount of literature (including both vedic and classic subjects that are still unexplored) only mirrors this deep concern that our ancients had for the preservation and transmission of the literary, cultural and professional heritage of our race. Members of the professions were to train their children in their own lines, rendering available to the future generation at the beginning of its career, all the skill and processes that were acquired after painful efforts of the bygone generations. Svadhyaya laid down that every student (of a particular shaka of a particular Veda) was to learn at least a portion of his particular literary heritage. It was the incumbent duty of the priestly class and preceptor class to commit the whole of the Vedic literature (of a particular shaka of a particular Veda) to memory in order to ensure its transmission to unborn generations. History is witness to the fact that even this greater cause of preservation of sacred Vedic knowledge was taken by a particular section of the Brahmana community devoted to lifelong cause of learning. Manusmrti (Adhyaya 3) describes the period of learning as follows

षट्त्रिंशदाब्दिकं चर्यं गुरौ त्रैवेदिकं व्रतम् । तदर्धिकं पादिकं वा ग्रहणान्तिकं एव वा । । ३.१ । ।

वेदानधीत्य वेदौ वा वेदं वापि यथाक्रमम् । अविप्लुतब्रह्मचर्यो गृहस्थाश्रमं आवसेत् । । ३.२ । । (Manu. Smrt. 3.1 -2)

Students were imparted moral values that remained with them for life. From the very young age emphasis was laid on obedience to parents, respect to elders and preceptors, gratitude to Rsis; all of which helped preserved the cultural heritage. Svadhyaya and Rsitarpana played an important role once the student entered grhastha ashrama. Svadhyaya enjoined a daily recapitulation of at least a portion of what was learnt during student life and Rsitarpana required a daily offering of tribute of gratitude to the rshis and mantradrashtas of the past, during the morning prayers. As this tradition gradually declined where very few agnihotris (those who perform morning and evening offering in Agnihotras) are practicing these days, the study of Puranas gained more popularity and developed as a community activity. Reaching out to masses through their native language, many Puranic lores though expounded the older procedures of yajnas, gradually got filtered down and only few best cultural practices remained in the present day preserved even by the illiterate population as tradition.

ऋणत्रयसिध्दान्तः ॥ Rna Siddhanta

Vedic age references speak about the Three Debts (ऋणत्रयम्) which served the purpose of instilling moral values in the younger generation to accept and maintain the best traditions of thought and action of the past generations. According to this siddhanta the moment an individual is born in this world, he /she incurs three debts, which he can discharge only by performing certain duties.

1. देवऋणम् ॥ Debt to the Devatas is relieved by learning how to perform yajnas and by regularly offering them. Thus religious traditions are preserved.
2. ऋषिऋणम् ॥ Debt to the Rshis of the bygone ages can be discharged by studying their works and continuing their literary and professional traditions. Thus the literary traditions are preserved.
3. पितृऋणम् ॥ Debt to the Pitrs or ancestors can be repaid by getting married to raise progeny and impart education to them. Thus the family tradition is preserved.

Taittriya Samhita mentions the three debts as follows.

जायमानो वै ब्राह्मणस्तृभिर्ऋणैर्ऋणवाञ्जीयते । यज्ञेन देवेभ्यो ब्रह्मचार्येण ऋषिभ्यः प्रजया पितृभ्यः ॥ (Tait. Samh)

Steps were taken to see that the rising generation became an efficient torch bearer of the culture and traditions of the past. Body, mind, intellect and Atma constitute a human being; the aims and ideals of ancient system of education were thus to promote their simultaneous and harmonious development.

Principles of Education

Ancient thinkers also laid down some postulates about education which have been scattered in different sources and inferred from practices. A few such important aspects include the following

Education is for all

Social efficiency being one of the aims of education, it was naturally insisted that all sections of the society were qualified to receive it and thus have access to it. Since it was the best agency to improve the society it was regarded necessary for all people and not a privilege to those lucky few who had money and leisure to devote to its acquisition. Upanayana samskara, which marked the beginning of religious and literary education was made mandatory to male children (and was so for female children in vedic times). The stories of Brahmavadinis such as Gargi, Lopamudra etc clearly depict that women were engaged in vedic studies since ages. The Dvija varnas (the first three varnas) thus received at least the rudimentary of literary and religious education. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (1.5.7) further declared that a man can discharge his debts to pitrs (ancestors) not by merely procreating but by providing for their education also. To enforce this goal several steps and measures were built in the education system.

• Adequate supply of teachers was ensured by having an injunction where Brahmanas were to take up teaching as a duty irrespective of the consideration whether they were monetarily supported or not.

• Rajas and Maharajas used to support Brahmanas by providing for their food and cows for anushtana (practicing of the yajnas) apart from small pieces of agricultural land which helped them maintain their family and students.
• Education was to be imparted without monetary gains from students. Students however, paid the Gurudakshina in different forms (Dharma, Artha or Seva) but it was not mandatory to pay it in financial form only.

• Bhikshatana of a brahmachari was held in highest order for its moral perspectives, namely, the grhasthas were bound to support the persons in other ashramas and Annadana was held in highest importance, the social responsibility of the students was distributed in the society. The grhastas and brahmacharis from different varnas (poor or rich) learnt humility, the greatest moral value. Brahmacharis learnt time management and bhiksha instilled in the young minds that all are equal in a guru's ashrama whether the student came from a rich or a poor family background.

Education is a serious proposition

Though it was advocated that all people should receive the benefits of education, some checks were in place to avoid wastage of time on morally and intellectually unfit persons who were excluded from this benefit (Nirukta 2.4). Real scholarship was a serious path of great learning for the students. The path was designed to shape the moral, cultural and religious thinking of the student. Many early texts such as Vedas and Upanishads (Taittriyopanishad mentions student characteristics in Shikshavalli) and the later ones such as Puranas, Mahabharata and more recent Subhashitas emphasize the rigor that was required for a student to gain scholarly attributes. The rich and the poor have both to submit to stern discipline in order to become learned. The testing procedures in earlier days were also quite rigorous and were mostly verbal.

Studentship and Marriage are incompatible

One of the primary dharmas of a brahmachari is to lead a celibate life in order to realise his educational ideals. Thus, the authorities who built our education system laid down that a student should observe celibacy in thought and deed during his educational life and can marry at the end of the course with the permission of his Guru. Taittriya Upanishad elaborately mentions about the Samavartana and Snataka (a graduate who finished his studies) which are the rites of passage from brahmacharya to grhasthashrama. So marriage was considered an important samskara and transition point of ashramas. It may be observed that the reasons for being celibate during education include having single-minded focus on studies, having less responsibility (of fending for family), time management and self discipline for long and laborious studies and show complete dedication to perform sushruta to his Guru (which is very important for education).

Owing to several causes be it invasions by foreigners, gradual loss of traditional activities, changes in society structure all played a role in bringing about changes in the institution of marriage. One of the main deviations included the decrease in the marriageable age of girls which began to fall just before the advent of the Christian era and continued several centuries from then on. From 16 years of age, it came down to 14, then to 12 and even 11 or 10 in early centuries of the common era. The lowering of marriageable age of girls naturally brought down the marriageable age of the boys to about 18 and then to 16. Marriage thus was inevitably performed before the completion of education. Dr. Altekar arrives at the conclusion that from the beginning of the Christian era, more than 50% students used to marry before their education was completed.

Education begins at young age

Ancient rshis were clear and convinced that no good results would follow if education was begun late in life.

नाति षोडशमुपनयीत प्रसृष्टवृषणो ह्येष वृषलीभूतो भवतीति। (Jaim. Grhy. Sutr. 1.12)

A boy who begins his education at 16 years of age is not likely to bring any credit to his teachers. During childhood, as proved by modern sciences also, mind is pliable, memory is keen and intellect is receptive; the foundational habits of a child can be moulded to form good habits which will remain with him for the rest of his life. Upanayana samskara at the right age was laid down by in starting from Dharmasutra texts summarized for the present day in the Nibandhanas like Dharmasindhu etc.

सप्तमे ब्राह्मणमुपनयीत पञ्चमे ब्रह्मवर्चसकामं नवमे त्वायुष्काममेकादशे क्षत्रियं द्वादशे वैश्यं... (Jaim. Grhy. Sutr. 1.12)

It was held that 5th year (for those aspiring for Brahmavarchas) and 8th year (adding the one year of garbhasthiti) would be proper time for Upanayana in Brahmanas and in 9th year for those aspiring Ayush or longevity. 11th year is when Upanayana has to be conducted in Kshatriyas and 12th year for the Vaishyas.

Education should be thorough

Education was rightly regarded as the knowledge source of illumination and was expected to enable its recipients to successfully meet and solve the difficulties and problems of life. Therefore education should be thorough and efficient, not limited to imparting general knowledge of a number of subjects, ideally it was to train experts to handle different branches of knowledge. Since printing was not known, commiting the knowledge to memory was required and highly emphasised so that it stead throughout the life of the person. To ensure this, personal attention to each student and practical training was insisted to maintain a high degree of proficiency.

Education is a continuous process

Once learnt in studentship education was either continued lifelong by a certain set of students of Vedas and many others progressed to learn other shastras and professional education. Thus we see that development of memory played a very important role and it was stipulated that every dvija graduate should recapitulate daily a portion of what he had learnt under the guidance of the Guru. At the time of Samavartana (end of studies or convocation) he is reminded not to neglect his duty of daily revision or Svadhyaya, as extolled in the famous Taittriya Upanishad Shikshavalli given below.

स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः। ... स्वाध्यायप्रवचनाभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम् । (Tait. Upan. 1.11.1)

During rainy season every graduated student was expected to devote extra time to his studies for more practical reasons that he cannot go out for his work when rains are heavy.

Education involves active student cooperation

Ancient seers held that the process of gaining knowledge was an active one, with the student expressing his urge in acquiring more knowledge and the Guru finding great pleasure in teaching the pupil. Voluntary cooperation in the form of willingness to learn, was a highly desired student quality which yielded great results. Students who were insincere, showing relaxed behaviour with indifference towards learning were not encouraged. Manusmrti 2.113 and 114, 191, considered it to be a meaningless action similar to sowing seeds in a barren land, in the case of education of insincere students.

धर्मार्थौ यत्र न स्यातां शुश्रूषा वापि तद्विधा । तत्र विद्या न वप्तव्या शुभं बीजं इवोषरे । । २.११२ । ।

विद्ययैव समं कामं मर्तव्यं ब्रह्मवादिना । आपद्यपि हि घोरायां न त्वेनां इरिणे वपेत् । । २.११३ । ।

विद्या ब्राह्मणं एत्याह शेवधिस्तेऽस्मि रक्ष माम् । असूयकाय मां मादास्तथा स्यां वीर्यवत्तमा । । २.११४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.112 - 114)

Summary : Where there is no dharma, artha (monetary return) or seva (शुश्रूषा) in return for teaching a student, then such a person should not be imparted any education. It would be similar to sowing good seeds in a barren land, in such a case.

Student Punishment

The popular saying "spare the rod and spoil the child" which is about punishment to children is the common social problem relevant to the present day education system also. Associated with this topic we have the following important questions

1. what if entrusted student meets with indifference from the Guru?
2. what are the allowed modes of remonstration for a teacher?

Ancient Bharatiya systems unfold various versions to deal with refractory students, and there is no unanimity about this concept.

Apastamba recommends that a teacher should try to improve refractory students by banishing them from his presence or by imposing a fast (Apas. 1.2.8.30).

Manu views gentle persuasion of a student is a good way but eventually mild physical punishment is permitted. (2.159-61)

Gautama supports Manu's views but adds the legal perspective that stern punishment by a teacher attracts legal prosecution.

शिष्यशिष्टिरवधेन ॥ अशक्तौ रज्जुवेणुविदलाभ्यां तनुभ्याम् ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.48-49)

वधस्ताडनम् । अताडयता गुरुणा भर्त्सनादिभिः शिष्यः शास्यः॥ (Mita. Bhas. for Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.48)

Summary : A guru should discipline a shisya by such verbal criticism and remonstration without physical punishment. If a shishya cannot be brought under control by remonstration then using a thin bamboo stick or string he can be punished.

अन्येन घ्नन् राज्ञा शास्यः ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.50)

हस्तादिना क्रोधवशेन ताडयन् राज्ञा शास्य आचार्यः । एवं शिष्यस्य गुरुकुले वास उक्तः ॥ (Mita. Bhas. for Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.50)

By other measures such as beating (with hands in anger) to discipline the shishsya attracts persecution of the Acharya by Raja (higher authority).

विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि ॥ Vidyarthi's Qualities

Ancient seers emphasized on the importance of habits, routine, imitation and association to secure ready cooperation of the shishya towards education. At a young impressionable age a child can be molded to develop the required vidyarthi's qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि) and such habits constitute a second nature in adulthood.

Importance of Habits

Rules of discipline, prescribed during formative years, are often laid down for forming good and valuable habits (preventive action) more than for the purpose of prohibiting him from doing undesirable acts (corrective actions). Preparing for the hard life and long struggles before him, rules are laid down, calculated to develop them into strong men with determination and great enduring power.

Importance of Routine

Routine also played an important role in the pliable age which aided in the formation of good habits and master their subjects by the end of their course. It was made interesting and engaging for children so that compliance is easily achieved. Recitation of the slokas and group recitation by several children was for motivating the children and secure their cooperation. Different ways of routine for example was

• Students of primary and secondary education (the first few years of education) went through the routine of daily recitation and memorization practice. This would enable them to master their subject matter.
• Students of poetics and literature were engaged in practicing composition and building slokas.
• Students of subjects like Vyakarana engaged in memorizing the sutras daily.
• Students of astronomy were engaged in daily observations and mathematical calculations.
• Students of Vedas were engaged in daily practice of yajnas.
• Students of sculpture and painting engaged in regular long hours of practice.

Association and Imitation

Association and imitation played a great part in moulding the character and improving the calibre of a student. Even a dull student will improve his intellect if he is close association with a brilliant boy and imitates his methods of study.