Veda Vargeekarana (वेदवर्गीकरणम्)

Vedas (Samskrit : वेदः) is regarded as revealed scripture, self-explanatory and self authoritative, according to many traditional scholars. वैदिकसूक्त-s || Vedic Suktas (Collection of Mantras) and मन्त्र-s || Mantras are "seen by" or "revealed to" and only spoken by the ऋषि-s || Rishis (seers or sages). These rishis are neither authors of the Mantras nor are they responsible for the contents of the Mantras. Thus, Vedas are called अपौरुषेयः ॥ Apaurusheya. There is no final authority beyond the Vedas according to Bharatiya philosophy. While the mantras are revealed, the structural arrangement of Vedas given by वेदव्यासः ॥ Veda Vyasa and further formation of शाखा-s || shakas (recensions) or versions of Vedas seen today is based on different rishis.

परिचयः || Introduction

महर्षिः वेदव्यासः || Maharshi Veda Vyasa collected all the Mantras in existence during his period, edited, codified and organized them into four groups in the form that we see today.

1. ऋग्वेदः || The Rigveda
2. यजुर्वेदः || The Yajurveda
3. सामवेदः || The Samaveda
4. अथर्वणवेदः || The Atharvanaveda

Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called त्रयी-विद्या || Trayi vidya, that is, 'the triple science' of reciting mantras (Rigveda), performing यज्ञाः ॥ yajnas (sacrifices) (Yajurveda), and singing of mantras set to musical notes (Samaveda). Atharvaveda consists of mantras applicable to activities of daily life, such as ailments and their cure, achieving desired things, warfare, trade, commerce, construction among other things.    

ऋग्वेदः || Rigveda

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

The Samskrit धातुः "ऋच्" (तुदादि-गणः) is used in the meaning स्तुतिः || Stuti (to praise). That which has the description of the quality, action and nature of substances is said to be ऋक् (Rk). Rigveda contains primarily Mantras (set in 2, 3 or 4 पादा-s || padas) dealing with the stuti for देवताः ॥ devatas, their invocation, यज्ञकर्माणि ॥ yajnakarmas, कर्मकाण्डः ॥ karmakanda, उपासना-मन्त्राः ॥ upasana mantras, mantras related to different worldly activities such as दानम् ॥ dana, conduct, medical remedies etc.

ऋग्वेद-विभाजनम् ॥ Rigveda Vibhajana

There are two types of divisions of Rigveda namely, मण्डल-क्रमः ॥ Mandala krama and अष्टक-क्रमः ॥ Ashtaka krama. They arose mainly for अध्ययनम् || study and अध्यापनम् || teaching. A small lesson is easily grasped or understood and committed to memory.(See footnote 3 on Page 35 of Reference 1) There are different versions advocated by different scholars about the number of सूक्त-s || suktas and मन्त्र-s || mantras available in Rigveda.

मण्डल-क्रमः ॥ Mandala Krama

According to the मण्डल-क्रमः ॥ Mandala krama, ऋग्वेद-संहिता ॥ Rigveda Samhita is divided into 10 Mandalas or books. The Mandalas are subdivided into 85 अनुवाक-s || Anuvakas, 1028 सूक्त-s || Suktas and 10522 मन्त्राः ॥ mantras and 10552 mantras according to another version. In Rig veda, in शाकल-संहिता ॥ Shakala samhita the number of suktas in each Mandala is - 191, 43, 62, 58, 87, 75, 104, 103, 114, 191 (1028) respectively from the first to tenth Mandala.

मण्डलम् ॥ Mandala      ►	अनुवाकः ॥ Anuvaka      ►	सूक्तम् ॥ Sukta       ►	मन्त्रः ॥ Mantra

Rig Veda contains 10552 mantras (about 10,170 Rks) according to some other scholars, spread over 1028 Suktas and 85 Anuvakas in 10 Mandalas. According to शौनक-ऋषिः ॥ Shaunaka rishi there are 10580 mantras (Page 17 of Reference 4). According to शौनक-अनुक्रमणिका ॥ Shaunaka Anukramanika, 11 suktas of वालखिल्य-s || Valakhilyas are present. Removing which from the total number of suktas (1028), will yield 1017 Suktas in Rig Veda Samhita. वष्कल ॥ Vashkala or बाष्कल-शाखा ॥ Baskala shaka has 8 suktas more than 1017. Thereby is mentioned as having 1025 Suktas.

In Rigveda, not only are the suktas and mantras counted but also there is a system of counting even the अक्षराणि ॥ Aksharas (letters) in such texts called सर्वाणुक्रमणिका-s | Sarvanukramanikas, thereby leaving no scope of additions or deletion of letters in the Veda. This was one main reason why there are no changes in this Veda since ancient times. It is to be noted that in this अक्षरगणना ॥ Aksharaganana, the Valakhilya sutras are not seen, hence they Suktas are counted without them. The differences in the counting of mantras is mainly because of the differences in the shakhas, additionally in modern times the differences in counting the Rks is attributed to breaking the mantras having 4 पादा-s || padas into 2 padas each (Page No 6 of Reference 4).

अष्टक-क्रमः ॥ Ashtaka Krama

According to the अष्टक-क्रमः ॥ Ashtaka krama, ऋग्वेद-संहिता ॥ Rigveda Samhita is divided into 8 Ashtakas each containing 8 Adhyayas. Thus, a total of 64 Adhyayas are available. The number of वर्ग-s || Vargas in each Ashtaka is - 265, 221, 225, 250, 238, 331, 248, 246 respectively from first to eighth Ashtaka. Thus, a total of 2024 vargas are present in Rk samhita. The total number of mantras are 10522 according to some scholars(Page 34 of Ref 1).

अष्टकः ॥ Ashtaka      ►	अध्यायः ॥ Adhyaya      ►	वर्गः ॥ Varga       ►	मन्त्रः ॥ Mantra

शाखाः ॥ Shakhas

Only one Shaka (school or recension) of the Rigveda is available today

• शाकल-शाखा || Shakala

According to सर्वाणुक्रमणि-वृत्तिः ॥ Sarvanukramani vritti, अहिर्बुध्न्यसंहिता ॥ Ahirbudhnyasamhita, मुक्तिकोपनिषद् ॥ Muktikopanishad and पतञ्जलेः महाभाष्यम् ॥ Patanjali's Mahabhashya, and recently many scholars opined that Rigveda had 21 shakhas.

However, according to Pt. Satyavrat Samashrami, Rig veda has only 2 ancient shakhas namely, शाकलः || Shakala and माण्डूकेयः || Mandukeya. These two shakhas became 21 shakhas gradually. शङ्कराचार्यः ॥ Shakalacharya taught this veda to 5 of his disciples and gradually in their pronunciation there were differences bringing about 5 different versions of the Veda, which according to the text विकृति-कौमुदी ॥ Vikruti Kaumudi is as follows:

शाकल्यसेय शतं शिष्या नैष्ठिकब्रह्मचारिणः | पञ्च तेषां गृहस्थास्ते धर्मनिष्ठाश्च कुटुम्बिनः ||

शिशिरो वाष्कलो सांख्यो वात्स्यश्चैवाश्वलायनः | पञ्चैते शाकलाः शिष्याः शाखाभेदप्रवर्त्तकाः ||

śākalyaseya śataṃ śiṣyā naiṣṭhikabrahmacāriṇaḥ | pañca teṣāṃ gṛhasthāste dharmaniṣṭhāśca kuṭumbinaḥ ||

śiśiro vāṣkalo sāṃkhyo vātsyaścaivāśvalāyanaḥ | pañcaite śākalāḥ śiṣyāḥ śākhābhedapravarttakāḥ ||

Meaning : शाकलः ॥ Shakala had 100 students who were ब्रह्मचारी-s || brahmacharis. Of them, 5 who were having धर्मनिष्ठा ॥ dharmanishtha were गृहस्थ-s || grhasthas bearing the responsibility of maintaining a family. शिशिरः || Shishira, वाष्कलः || Vashkala (Bashkala), साङ्ख्यः || Sankhya, वात्स्यः || Vatsya and आश्वलायनः || Ashvalayana were the five disciples who were the प्रवर्तक-s || pravartakas of the different shakhas. Ashvalayana Samhita was available as lately as 17th century but is presently unavailable. शाङ्खायन-संहिता ॥ Sankhayana samhita is not available but its ब्राह्मण-s || Brahmanas and आरण्यक-s || Aranyakas are available. Some scholars opine that शाङ्खायन ॥ Sankhayana and कौषीतकी शाखाः॥ Kaushitaki shakhas are one and the same.

देवताः छन्दसः ऋत्विक् च ॥ Devatas, Chandas and Rtvik

Rigveda mantras are chanted by the होता || Hota (the Rigveda priest), to invoke the deities to the यज्ञः ॥ yajna. Important Rigvedic deities are अग्निः ॥ Agni, इन्द्रः ॥ Indra, वरुणः ॥ Varuna, उषस् ॥ Ushas, सविता ॥ Savita, पूषा ॥ Pusha, मित्रः ॥ Mitra, विष्णुः ॥ Vishnu, रुद्रः ॥ Rudra, मरुत् ॥ Marut and पर्जन्यः ॥ Parjanya. गायत्री ॥ Gayatri, जगती ॥ Jagati, बृहती ॥ Bruhati, पङ्क्ती ॥ Pankti and त्रिष्टुभ् ॥ Trishtubh and अनुष्टुभ् ॥ Anustubh are widely used meters (Page No 6 of Reference 4).

विषयविभागाः ॥ Vishaya vibhaga-s

The topics dealt with in the ऋग्वेद-संहिता ॥ Rigveda Samhita can be classified into 3 groups.

स्तुतिपराः || Eulogical

The first group is in praise of the deities like अग्निः || Agni, इन्द्रः || lndra, वरुणः || Varuna, मित्रः || Mitra and others. The Vedic deities numbering 33 are assigned to the three regions of the universe  viz. पृथ्वी || Prithvi (earth), द्यौस् || Dyaus (heaven) and अन्तरिक्षम् || Antariksha (intermediary space). Although these deities appear as personifications of forces of nature, they are actually different facets of ब्रह्मन् ॥ Brahman, the Only One Supreme Reality. The famous mantra on this point occurs in this Samhita. 

एकम् सत् विप्रः बहुध वदन्ति ||  ekam sat vipraḥ bahudha vadanti || (Rig. Ved. 1.164. 92)

Meaning : Truth is one, learned call it by various names.

उपासनापराः ॥ Philosophical

The second group is concerned with philosophical speculations like the origin of the Universe and the real nature of human beings. Although the Samhita contains mantras in praise of the devatas, the concept of Vedanta is present at least in a rudimentary form. However, advocacy of worship of devatas with form and qualities - सगुणोपासना || Sagunopasana - is predominant. Various Rigveda mantras show एकदेवतावादः || eka-devata-vada or monotheism and not polytheism. For example, the Samhita states that प्रजापतिः ॥ Prajapati creates the world out of Himself and rules over it; He is omnipresent (present everywhere), omnipotent (all powerful) and omniscient (all knowing). He is ever perfect, infinitely compassionate, easily approachable by the devotees and He grants us immortality. But the idea about actual process of creation of the universe finds a place only in the later Vedantic literature i.e. the उपनिषदः ॥ Upanishads. The concept of Brahman is clearer in the Upanishad parts.

इतिहासपराः ॥ Miscellaneous

The third group deals with several secular subjects like marriage, war etc., which show the nature of society of those times. A just and equitable social order existed. However, social life was conditioned by spiritual consciousness. There was समन्वयः || Samanvaya or harmony of life here and hereafter. सत्यम् || Satya (truth) and धर्मः || Dharma (righteousness) are glorified and अमृतत्वम् || Amritatva (immortality) as the goal of life was accepted.

प्रसिद्धाः विषयाः ॥ Famous Aspects

• ऊर्वसी-पुरूरवा-संवादः ॥ Urvasi Pururava Samvada (Rigveda. 10.85)
• यम-यमी-संवादः ॥ Yama Yami Samvada (Rigveda. 10.10)
• सरमा-पणि-संवादः ॥ Sarama and Pani Samvada (Rigveda. 10.130)

Some of these discussions are presented in पुराण-s || Puranas.

• नासदीय-सूक्तम् ॥ Nasadiya Sukta
• पुरुष-सूक्तम् ॥ Purusha Sukta
• हिरण्यगर्भ-सूक्तम् ॥ Hiranyagarbha Sukta
• वाक्-सूक्तम् ॥ Vak Sukta

ब्राह्मणानि आरण्यकानि उपनिषदः च ॥ Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads

• ऐतरेय-ब्रह्मणं कौषीतकी ब्राह्मणमं च ॥ Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas
• ऐतरेय-आरण्यकं शाङ्खायन-आरण्यकं च ॥ Aitareya and Sankhyayana Aranyakas
• ऐतरेय-उपनिषद् ॥ Aitareya Upanishad

यजुर्वेदः || Yajurveda

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

According to शब्दकल्पद्रुमः ॥ Shabdakalpadruma,

इज्यतेऽनेनेति यजुः || ijyate'neneti yajuḥ ||

Meaning: performing of यज्ञ-s || yajnas using this () hence called यजुस् ॥ Yajus.

अनियताक्षरावसानो यजुः ॥ aniyatākṣarāvasāno yajuḥ ॥

Meaning: that which has no regulation (metrical) of letters is called Yajus. According to Pt Gajanan Shastri - the word yajus is derived by the combination of यज् || yaj and उसि || usi.

गद्यात्मको यजुः || gadyātmako yajuḥ ||

Meaning: Yajus are (the mantras) in prose form.

Following texts clearly define the purpose of "Yajus" mantras in yajnas and hence the name Yajurveda is given.

• Nirukta, यजुः यजतेः । ७.१२ । Yajnas are conducted with Yajus (mantras).

• Katha Samhita (27.1), यजर्भियजन्ति and (Kath. Samh. 200.21) यजुस्तस्माद् (यज्ञात्) अजायत

• Brahmanda Purana : यच्छिष्टं तु यजुर्वेदे तेन यज्ञमयुंजत । यजनात्स यजुर्वेद इति शास्त्रविनिश्चयः ।। ३४.२२ ।। (Brah. Pura. Purvabhaga 34.22)

यजुर्वेद-विभाजनम् ॥ Yajurveda Vibhajana

The divisions of the text for शुक्लयजुर्वेदः ॥ Shukla Yajurveda are slightly different and include a combination of these as given below (See Page xviii of the Introduction in Reference ). However, variations of these divisions is seen according to other scholars.

काण्डः ॥ Kanda      ►	अध्यायः ॥ Adhyaya ►	प्रपाठकः ॥ Prapathaka ►	ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Brahmana ►	काण्डिका ॥ Kandika

• माध्यन्दिन-शाखा ॥ Madhyandina Shakha : 40 अध्यायाः ॥ Adhyayas and 1975 मन्त्राः ॥ mantras, 90525 अक्षराणि ॥ aksharas.
• काण्व-संहिता ॥ Kanva Shaka : 40 अध्यायाः ॥ Adhyayas and 2086 मन्त्राः ॥ mantras.

The divisions of the text for कृष्ण-यजुर्वेदः ॥ Krishna Yajurveda have different arrangements. Following are the textual divisions in तैत्तिरीय-शाखा ॥ Taittriya shakha which is representative of Krishna Yajurveda.

काण्डः ॥ Kanda      ►	प्रपाठकः ॥ Prapathaka ►	अनुवाकः ॥ Anuvaka ►	मन्त्रः वा काण्डिका ॥ Mantra or Kandika

In some south Indian parts where this shakha is widely followed, there are other terms such as Panasa and प्रश्नः ॥ Prashna (ex: रुद्रप्रश्नः ॥ Rudraprasha) are in usage. सारस्वत् ॥Saraswat and आर्षेय ॥ Arsheya system of classification are also seen for Krishna Yajurveda.

• तैत्तिरीय-शाखा ॥ Taittriya Shakha - 7 काण्डाः ॥ kandas, 44 प्रपाठकाः ॥ Prapathakas, 651 अनुवाकाः ॥ Anuvakas (631 according to Page 9 of Reference ), 2198 काण्डिकाः ॥ Kandikas are present.
• मैत्रायणी शाखा ॥ Maitrayani Shaka - 4 काण्डाः ॥ kandas, 11 प्रपाठकाः ॥ Prapatakas, 3144 मन्त्राः ॥ mantras.
• कठ-संहिता ॥ Kathasamhita - 40 अध्यायाः ॥ Adhyayas, 843 अनुवाकाः ॥ Anuvakas, 3091 मन्त्राः ॥ mantras.
• कपिष्ठल-संहिता ॥ Kapisthalakatha - 6 अष्टकाः ॥ Astakas, 48 अध्यायाः ॥ Adhyayas.

Thus, as seen above, different classification systems are seen for every शाखा ॥ shakha.

शाखाः ॥ Shakhas

The number of यजुर्वेदशाखाः ॥ Yajurveda shakhas is given variously by different ऋषि-s || rishis and scholars as

• 101 shakhas (recensions)
• 101 out of which 86 were कृष्णयजुर्वेदः ॥ Krishna Yajurveda and 15 belonged to शुक्लयजुर्वेदः ॥ Shukla Yajurveda
• 107 according to सूतसंहिता ॥ Sutasamhita, स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana and ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Puranas
• 109 according to मुक्तिकोपनिषद् ॥ Muktikopanishad
• 100 according to पतञ्जलिः ॥ Pathanjali in his महाभाष्यम् ॥ Mahabhasya
• 86 according to चरणव्यूहम् ॥ Charanavyuha and शौनकः ॥ Shaunaka.
• According to वायु-पुराणम् ॥ Vayu Purana, there were 86 student lineages and thus, 86 शाखाः ॥ shakhas of महर्षिः वैशम्पायनः ॥ Maharshi Vaisampayana are mentioned.
• विष्णुपुराणम् ॥ Vishnupurana and अग्निपुराणम् ॥ Agnipurana give a number of 27 शाखाः ॥ shakhas of यजुर्वेदः || Yajurveda.

Thus, quite some variation is seen in the number of shakhas that existed for Yajurveda.

In the present day, five Shakas of Yajurveda are seen namely तैत्तिरीय ॥ Taittriya, कठ ॥ Katha or कपिष्ठल ॥ Kapisthala, मैत्रायणी ॥ Maitrayani, वाजसनेयी ॥ Vajasaneyi and काण्व ॥ Kanva according to some scholars.

Many scholars view the classification into two major groups or शाखा-s || Shakhas :

• कृष्ण-यजुर्वेदः ॥ Krishna Yajurveda
• शुक्ल-यजुर्वेदः ॥ Shukla Yajurveda

Today, a vast majority of people follow the Yajurveda. Krishna Yajurveda is common in the South of India and Shukla Yajurveda in the North.

Shukla Yajurveda Shakhas (15) : Charanavyuha book mentions the 15 Shukla Yajurveda shakas as follows :

Kanva, Madhyandhina, Shopeyaha, Tapayaneeyaha, Kapalaha, Poundravastasha, Avatikaha, Paramavatikaha, Parasharyaha, Vaidheyaha, Vaineyaha, Audheyaha, Galavaha, Vaijavaha, Katyayaneyaha. Of these, presently, only काण्व ॥ Kanva and माध्यन्दिन-संहिता ॥ Madhyandina samhitas are available

Krishna Yajurveda Shakhas : Of the 86 shakas only four are available : तैत्तिरीय ॥ Taittiriya, कठ ॥ Katha, कपिष्ठल ॥ Kapisthala, and मैत्रायणी ॥ Maitrayani

कृष्णयजुर्वेद-संहिता || Krishna Yajurveda

The term कृष्ण || krishna of the shakha is so given due to following reasons

1. It contains both the छन्दोबद्ध ॥ Chandas (metrical) and गद्यात्मक ॥ Gadya (prose) forms of mantras
2. The texts of Mantras and ब्राह्मण-s || Brahmana (which explain the usage of the mantras) parts of the Veda are mixed.

This samhita is said to have contained 85 Shakhas but only four of them are available now, out of which the Taittiriya Samhita is widely studied and followed especially in South India and other three Shakhas are not so well known.

Texts of the four major shakhas that have survived are

1. तैत्तिरीय || Taittiriya
2. कठ/काठक || Katha or Kathaka
3. कपिष्ठल-कठ || Kapisthala-Katha
4. मैत्रायणी || Maitrayani

ब्राह्मणानि आरण्यकानि उपनिषदः च ॥ Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads

The ब्राह्मण-s ॥ Brahmanas, आरण्यक-s || Aranyakas and उपनिषद्-s || Upanishads related to this संहिता ॥ Samhita are-

1. तैत्तिरीय-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Taittiriya Brahmana
2. तैत्तिरीय-आरण्यकम् ॥ Taittiriya Aranyaka and मैत्रायणी आरण्यकम् ॥ Maitrayani Aranyaka
3. तैत्तिरीय-उपनिषद् ॥ Taittiriya Upanishad
4. कठोपनिषद् ॥ Kathopanishad
5. श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् ॥ Shvetaswatara Upanishad
6. मैत्रायणी उपनिषद् ॥ Maitrayani Upanishad
7. महानारायण-उपनिषद् ॥ MahaNarayana Upanishad.

शुक्लयजुर्वेद-संहिता || Shukla Yajurveda

The term शुक्ल || Shukla of the शाखा ॥ shakha is so given due to following reasons :

1. It contains only the छन्दस् ॥ Chandas (metrical) forms of mantras without any prose content.
2. Mantras are arranged in an orderly manner.

The Shukla Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Shatapatha Brahmana).

This Samhita was said to contain 15 shakhas (See footnote 1 in Page 20 of Reference ) which were called वाजसनेयी ॥ Vajasaneyi. शुक्ल-यजुर्वेद-संहिता || Shukla Yajurveda Samhita is said to have been brought to the knowledge of the world by the famous sage याज्ञवल्क्यः || Yajnavalkya from Vajasani which means the सूर्य-देवता ॥ Surya devata. Hence, this is also known as वाजसनेयी संहिता || Vajasaneyi Samhita. Shatapatha Brahmana (14.9.5.33) clearly mentions that the Shukla Yajus are expounded by Yajnavalkya

आदित्यानीमानि शुक्लानि यजूंषि वाजसनेयेन याज्ञवल्क्येनाख्यायन्ते || (Shat. Brah. 14.9.5.33)

Meaning : From Aditya these shukla yajus (mantras) are given to Yajnavalkya through Vajasaneya.

Texts of only two major shakhas have survived

1. माध्यन्दिन ॥ Madhyandina
2. काण्व ॥ Kanva

ब्राह्मणानि आरण्यकानि उपनिषदः च ॥ Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads

The ब्राह्मण-s ॥ Brahmanas, आरण्यक-s || Aranyakas and उपनिषद्-s || Upanishads related to this संहिता ॥ Samhita are-

1. शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Shatapatha Brahmana. This is a work extensively serving as a general guide to all the Vedas.
2. बृहदारण्यकम् ॥ BrhadAranyaka
3. ईशावास्योपनिषद् ॥ Isavasyopanishad
4. बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् ॥ Brhadaranyokopanishad

कृष्णशुक्ल-यजुर्वेदयोः भेदः ॥ Differences between Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda

Following are few differences between Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda presented by Pt. Rishiram Regmi.

S. No	कृष्ण-यजुर्वेदः ॥ Krishna Yajurveda	शुक्ल-यजुर्वेदः ॥ Shukla Yajurveda
1	Mantras in both metrical and prose forms	Mantras purely with chandas (metrical) only.
2	Irregularly arranged ऋषि-s || rishis, देवता-s || devatas and छन्दस् || chandas in तैत्तिरीय-सर्वाणुक्रमणिका ॥ Taittriya Sarvanukramanika (अस्तव्यस्तता)	Organized structure is seen in अनुक्रमणिका ॥ Anukramanika
3	Mantras and Brahmanas interspersed (मन्त्र-ब्राह्मणयोः सङ्कीर्णता)	Only Mantras are present. Brahmana part is separate.
4	Usage of one mantra in different contexts (प्रयोग-विविधता)	Usage of mantra in various contexts are not seen in this shakha.
5	Mantras are incomplete and filled by the कल्पसूत्र-मन्त्राः ॥ Kalpasutra mantras. (मन्त्र-अपूर्णता)	Kalpa sutras are not required for completion of mantras.
6	Existence of सारस्वत् ॥ Saraswat and आर्षेय ॥ Arsheya systems of classification in पदपाठः ॥ padapatha (पाठद्वैविद्यम्)	No such classification is present.
7	Follows ब्रह्मसम्प्रदायः ॥ Brahma Sampradaya	Follows आदित्य-सम्प्रदायः ॥ Aditya Sampradaya
8	Widely followed in Southern parts of India	Widely followed in Northern parts of India
9	Given by वैशम्पायन-ऋषिः ॥ Rishi Vaisampayana	Given by याज्ञवल्क्य-ऋषिः ॥ Rishi Yajnavalkya

देवताः छन्दसः ऋत्विक् च ॥ Devatas, Chandas and Rtvik

The devatas are the same as in Rigveda because a majority of mantras in Yajurveda are taken from there. The Yajurvedic procedural details are recited and conducted by अध्वर्युः || Adhvaryu priest for the proper performance of यज्ञाः ॥ Yajnas. In Shukla Yajurveda, the mantras have the same chandas as in Rigveda from where they have been taken.

In the context of Rishis in Yajurveda, 3 types of categories are seen

1. आदिद्रष्टा ॥ Adidrastha is the first rishi to whom the veda was revealed to. It was Maharshi Vedavyasa who received Vedas in a single form but later codified them and gave the Rigveda to Paila, Yajurveda to Vaisampayana. From Vaisampayana, his students Yajnavalkya and others received the knowledge. It is also said that since Shukla Yajurveda was received later from Aditya or Vivasvan he is also considered as the mantra drastha.
2. प्रकरणऋषिः ॥ Prakaranarishi is one who is associated with each prakarana or section of the Yajurveda. For example, for Darsapurnamasa prakarana, the rishi is Prajapati.
3. वैयक्तिकऋषिः॥ Vaiyaktikarishi is the category which includes all the rishis who praised the deities and practiced particular rituals to attain mantrasiddhi.

विषयम् || Content

Whether Krishna or Shukla, both the shakhas of Yajurveda deal primarily with the कर्मकाण्डः ॥ karmakanda and are also called यज्ञकाण्डः ॥ yajnakanda. All the shakha texts deal with detailed descriptions of श्रौतयज्ञाः ॥ Shrauta yajnas like राजसूयः ॥ Rajasuya, वाजपेयः ॥ Vajapeya, सोमयागः ॥ Somayaga etc. Krishna Yajurveda is considered older than the Shukla Yajurveda.

For example, in माध्यन्दिन-संहिता ॥ Madhyandina samhita, the यज्ञ-क्रियाः ॥ yajna kriyas for दर्शपूर्णमासः ॥ Darshapurnamasa, अग्निहोत्रः ॥ Agnihotra, चातुर्मास्यम् ॥ Chaturmasya, अग्निष्टोमः ॥ Agnistoma, Nirudhapasubandha, Chayanayaga, Sautramani, अश्वमेधः ॥ Ashvamedha, वाजपेयः ॥ Vajapeya, राजसूयः ॥ Rajasuya etc among other yajnas and इष्टि-s ॥ ishtis are present. The 40th अध्यायः ॥ Adhyaya is the ईशावास्योपनिषद् ॥ Ishavasyopanishad; this is the only instance where an Upanishad is associated with the Samhita.

It may be noted that while in Rigveda the text is organized according to ऋषि-s || rishis as मन्त्रद्रष्टा-s || mantra drastas, in Yajurveda the text is given according to the yajnas. It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an यजमानः ॥ yajamana performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire. यजुर्वेद-संहिता ॥ Yajurveda samhita includes mantras that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda. Unlike the सामवेदः ॥ Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose and linguistically, they are different from other Vedic texts. Yajurveda text is not just related to rituals or sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy.

प्रसिद्धाः मन्त्राः ॥ Famous Mantras

The popular mantras in praise of Lord Siva - श्रीरुद्रप्रस्नः || SriRudraprashna – finds a place in this Veda (षोडशः अध्यायः ॥ Shodasha Adhyaya). The other famous sukta, पुरुषसूक्तम् || Purusha Sukta also occurs here with some modifications.

सामवेदः || Samaveda

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

तल्लक्षणमाह जैमिनिः - गीतेषुसामाख्या इति गीयमानेषु मन्त्रेषु सामसंज्ञेत्यर्थः इति ||

tallakṣaṇamāha jaiminiḥ - gīteṣusāmākhyā iti gīyamāneṣu mantreṣu sāmasaṃjñetyarthaḥ iti ||

According to जैमिनिः ॥ Jaimini (शब्दकल्पद्रुमः ॥ Shabdakalpadruma), Mantras which are to be sung are called as साम ॥ Sama. According to बृहदारण्यक-उपनिषद् ॥ Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (1.3.22), साम ॥ Sama is derived as follows:

सा चामश्चेति तत्साम्नः सामत्वम् । 

sā cāmaśceti tatsāmnaḥ sāmatvam ।

Meaning : सा stands for Rk mantra and अम stands for गान ॥ Gana (gandhara etc svaras) and forms साम ॥ Sama when combined.

Along with the preparation of सोमरसः ॥ Soma rasa, praising the देवताः ॥ devatas by singing सामगानम् ॥ Samagana is an important aspect during सोमयज्ञः ॥ Somayajna. Instruments such as veena, dundubhi flute and other instruments were used. शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Shatapata Brahmana states that without सामगानम् ॥ Samagana, सोमयज्ञः ॥ Somayajna does not yield the desired results.

सामवेद-विभाजनम् ॥ Samaveda Vibhajana

सामवेद-संहिता ॥ Samaveda Samhita is the shortest of all the vedas given to the world by जैमिनिः ॥ Jaimini. Many साम-मन्त्राः ॥ Sama mantras are derived from the eighth and ninth मण्डल-s || Mandalas of the Rigveda. The division of the सामवेद ॥ samaveda text is as follows :

काण्डः ॥ Kanda ►	अध्यायः ॥ Adhyaya ►	मन्त्रः ॥ Mantra

The Samaveda comprises two major parts.

1. आर्चिकः ॥ Archika or the Mantras (hence called समांहितः ॥ Samamhita)
2. गान ॥ Gana or the Melody

According to some scholars the Rks are of two types - गेय (Song format) and अगेय (Not in Song format). Samaveda is composed of गेय-ऋक् (Song format of Rks) called as आर्चिक (Archika) and गेय-यजुस् (Song form of Yajus) called as स्तोक (Stoka).

The कौथुम-सामवेद-संहिता ॥ Kauthuma Samaveda Samhita consists of 1875 mantras, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the ऋग्वेद-शाकल-संहिता॥ Rigveda Shakala samhita. Scholars opine that the 75 mantras are also taken from the lost shakhas of Rigveda (शाङ्खायन ॥ Shankhayana and others), while some others opine that they are the original mantras of Samaveda.

जैमिनीय-संहिता ॥ Jaimineeya Samhita of Samaveda is divided into पूर्वाचिकः ॥ Purva Archika containing 646 mantras and उत्तरार्चिकः ॥ Uttara Archika 1041, totaling to 1687 mantras.

शाखाः ॥ Shakhas

सहस्त्रवर्त्मा सामवेदः |

sahastravartmā sāmavedaḥ |

According to महाभाष्यम् ॥ Mahabhashya, चरणव्यूहम् ॥ Charanavyuha, मुक्तिकोपनिषद् ॥ Muktikopanishad, अथर्वणपरिशिष्टम् ॥ Atharvana Parishisth, सर्वानुक्रमणिका ॥ Sarvanukramanika and महाभारतम् ॥ Mahabharata, this Veda is said to have 1000 Shakhas. This aspect is also found to be mentioned in पुराण-s || Puranas. There is an interesting ancedote mentioned by Pt. Ramshankar Bhattacharya that सामशाखाः ॥ Samashakhas were destroyed by इन्द्रः ॥ Indra. Also a mention was made about the different सामशाखा ॥ Samashaka preachers being wiped out by a natural calamity (See Page 21 of Reference 1). However, there are different versions of scholars about the loss of shakhas of Samaveda, but many opine that an innumerable number of सामगान-s || Samaganas could have existed.

Some Samaganas that have found a mention in other texts include - बृहत् रथन्तर, वैराज, ज्येष्ठ, रैवत among others that are definitely more than 1000 which may be the reason why the word "सहस्त्र" or thousand may be justified. Some shakhas of Samaveda that were mentioned in few ancient texts are

सात्यमुग्राः, नैगेयाः, शार्दूलाः, वार्षगण्याः, गाैतमाः, भाल्लविनः, कालबविनः, शाट्यायनिनः. रौरुकिणः. कापेयाः, माषशराव्यः, करद्विषः, शाण्डिल्याः, ताण्ड्याः

sātyamugrāḥ, naigeyāḥ, śārdūlāḥ, vārṣagaṇyāḥ, gāaitamāḥ, bhāllavinaḥ, kālabavinaḥ, śāṭyāyaninaḥ. raurukiṇaḥ. kāpeyāḥ, māṣaśarāvyaḥ, karadviṣaḥ, śāṇḍilyāḥ, tāṇḍyāḥ

Other shakhas of Samaveda include:

राणायन || Ranayana, सात्यमुग्र-व्यास || Satyamugra-vyasa, भागुरि || Bhaguri, औलुण्डि || Aulundi, गौल्मुलिव || Gaulmuliva, भानुमान || Bhanumana, औपमन्यव || Aupamanyava, दाराल || Darala, गार्ग्य || Gargya, सावर्णि || Sarvani, वार्षगणि || Varshagani, कुथुमि || Kauthumi, शालिहोत्र || Shaalihotra, जैमिनि || Jaimini while according to Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra, सात्यमुग्र || Satyamugra, व्यास || Vyasa, are separate shakhas, few others namely मानेपमन्यव || Manepamanyava, काराटि || karati, मशका || Mashaka are mentioned in addition to those given earlier.

Presently only three शाखाः ॥ shakhas are available.

1. कौथुम || Kauthuma
2. राणायनीय || Ranayaneeya
3. जैमिनीय || Jaiminiya

कौथुम ॥ Kauthuma is the widely followed शाखा ॥ shakha, mainly by Nagara brahmins of Gujarat, while Ranayaneeya is seen among the people of Maharashtra and Jaimineeya shakha is seen in Tamilnadu.

देवताः छन्दसः ऋत्विक् च ॥ Devatas, Chandas and Rtvik

All the mantras of the सामवेदः ॥ Samaveda are sung by the उद्गाता || Udgata priest during सोमयज्ञः ॥ Somayajna. Unlike Rigveda, deities of Samaveda are predominantly अग्निः ॥ Agni, इन्द्रः ॥ Indra and सोमः ॥ Soma.

विषयम् || Content

It is said that those who know the Samaveda know the secrets of Vedas.

सामगानम् ॥ Samagana (singing of mantras) as per the rules of Samaveda is said to be the basis and source of the सप्तस्वराः ॥ seven svaras (notes) fundamental to Indian music systems.

The special virtue of Samaveda is that although its mantras are from the Rigveda, they are set to music which is greatly conductive to the spiritual evolution of a human being and to qualify oneself for receiving the grace of the devatas.

Sri Krishna says in श्रीमद् भगवद्गीता ॥ Shrimad Bhagavadgita (Ch.10 Verse 22) 

वेदानां सामवेदोस्मि । vedānāṃ sāmavedosmi ।

Meaning : Among the Vedas, I am the Samaveda.

In छान्दोग्य-उपनिषद् ॥ Chandogya Upanishad, it is said that अङ्गिरस-महर्षिः ॥ Angirasa maharshi, while teaching Vedas to श्रीकृष्णः ॥ SriKrishna, first taught सामगान-विधिः ॥ Samagana vidhi called "Chalikhya" to Him, in which He attained perfection and played it on His flute.

Similarly, in the ललिता सहस्रनामम् ॥ Lalita Sahasranama, one of the epithets used to describe the Divine Mother is सामगानप्रिये || Sama Gana Priye (one who is pleased with the recital of Saman).

गान ॥ Gana texts contain the information about how Samagana is to be sung. While singing the mantras, मात्र-S || matras such as दीर्घः || deergha, प्लुतः ॥ pluta, and पाठपद्धतिः ॥ pathapaddhati (recitation methods) are clearly mentioned in these texts.

प्रसिद्धाः विषयाः ॥ Famous Aspects

भरतमुनिः ॥ Bharatamuni, the author of नाट्यशास्त्रम् ॥ Natyashastra, cites सामवेदः ॥ Samaveda as the origin of music.

जग्राह पाठ्यं ऋग्वेदात्‌, सामभ्यो गीतमेव च यजुर्वेदादभिनयान्‌ रसमाथर्वणादपि।। (Naty. shas. 1.17)

jagrāha pāṭhyaṃ ṛgvedāt‌, sāmabhyo gītameva ca yajurvedādabhinayān‌ rasamātharvaṇādapi।। (Naty. shas. 1.17)

Meaning : सामवेदः ॥ Samaveda is the origin of गीतम् ॥ geeta (music).

सामवेदादिदं गीतं संजग्राह पितामहः (Sang. Ratn. 1.25)

sāmavedādidaṃ gītaṃ saṃjagrāha pitāmahaḥ (Sang. Ratn. 1.25)

Meaning : ब्रह्मा ॥ Brahma collected musical notes (गीतम् ॥ geeta) from सामवेदः ॥ Samaveda.

According to सारङ्गदेवः ॥ Sarangadeva, the author of सङ्गीत-रत्नाकरम् ॥ Sangeeta Ratnakara, musical notes in words arose from Samaveda texts.

ब्राह्मणानि आरण्यकानि उपनिषदः च ॥ Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads

ब्राह्मण-s || Brahmanas, आरण्यक-s || Aranyakas and उपनिषद्-s || Upanishads affiliated to this Samhita are

1. ताण्ड्य-महाब्राह्मणम् ॥ Tandya Maha Brahmana, the biggest and most important. The other seven ब्राह्मण-s || Brahmanas namely षड्विंशब्राह्मणम् ॥ Shadvimshabrahmana, आर्षेयब्राह्मणम् ॥ Arsheyabrahmana, समविधानब्राह्मणम् ॥ Samavidhanabrahmana, देवताध्यायब्राह्मणम् ॥ Devatadhyayabrahmana,छान्दोग्य-उपनिषद्-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Chanddogyopanishad-brahmana, वंशब्राह्मणम् ॥ Vamshabrahmana and संहितोपनिषद्-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Samhitopanishadbrahmana.
2. One आरण्यकम् ॥ Aranyaka of this संहिता ॥ Samhita is available which is called तलवकार ॥ Talavakara or जैमिनीय-आरण्यकम् ॥ Jaiminiya Aranyaka.
3. छान्दोग्य-उपनिषद् ॥ Chandogya Upanishad
4. केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kenopanishad, also known as तलवकारोपनिषद् ॥ Talavakaropanishad.

अथर्ववेदः || Atharvaveda

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

अथर्वण ॥ Atharvana or अथर्ववेदः ॥ Atharvaveda (Samskrit : अथर्वण or अथर्व).

Here, थु्र्वी हिंसायाम् धातु || thurvī hiṃsāyām dhātu undergoes change into थर्व. अथर्व means that which is devoid of हिंसा ॥ himsa (harm to others).

Other names of this Veda include ब्रह्मवेदः ॥ Brahmaveda, क्षत्रवेदः ॥ Kshtraveda (as it contains a information about राजनीतिः ॥ rajaneeti or statecraft and administration for kings), भिषग्वेदः ॥ Bhishagveda (as it contains information about diseases and their cure), अङ्गीरोवेदः ॥ Angiroveda and अथर्वाङ्गीरोवेदः ॥ Atharvangiroveda. It is called as ब्रह्मवेदः ॥ Brahmaveda due to the following 3 reasons

1. In यज्ञकर्माणि ॥ Yajna karmas, ब्रह्मा ॥ Brahma is the ऋत्विक् ॥ Rtvik who oversees the यज्ञः ॥ yajna.
2. Contains the knowledge of ब्रह्मन् ॥ Brahman
3. The mantras of this veda were revealed to the rishi named ब्रह्मा ॥ Brahma.

अथर्ववेद-विभाजनम् ॥ Atharvaveda Vibhajana

The अथर्ववेद-संहिता ॥ Artharvaveda Samhita is the text revealed to the अथर्वन् || Atharvan and अङ्गिरसः || Angirasa rishis. अथर्वसंहिता ॥ Atharvasamhita of शौनक-शाखा ॥ Shaunaka shakha has the following divisions of the text.

काण्डः ॥ Kanda ►	सूक्तम् ॥ Sukta ►	प्रपाठकः ॥ Prapathaka ►	मन्त्रः ॥ Mantra

It has 20 काण्डाः ॥ Kandas, 760 / 730 / 731 सूक्तानि ॥ Suktas, 36 प्रपाठकाः ॥ Prapathakas and 5987 (5977) मन्त्राः ॥ mantras. Most of the mantras are metrical, but some sections are in prose. About 20% of the mantras are from Rigveda.

शाखाः ॥ Shakhas

According to Atharvana Parishista, Charanavyuha, Prapanchahrudaya, Pathanjali's Mahabhasya and Kurma Purana and Sarvanukramani, Atharvana veda had 9 shakas. Another version of Sarvanukramani and Muktikopanishad mention the existence of 50 shakas. The 9 shakas according to Charanavyuha are, slightly different from other versions, given as follows

पैपलादाः, स्त्रौदाः, शौनकीयाः,जाजलाः, देवदर्शाः, चारणविद्याः, स्त्रौदाः जलदाः ब्रह्मवादः

According to other versions the nine shakas are

पैपलादाः, स्त्रौदाःor तौद, मौद, शौनक, जाजल, जलद, ब्रह्मवादः, देवदर्श, चारणवैद्य

Out of the 9 Shakhas known only two are available now. They are

1. Pippalada (incomplete version)
2. Saunaka

देवताः छन्दसः ऋत्विक् च ॥ Devatas, Chandas and Rtvik

Like Rigveda from where Atharvana veda takes a significant part, the chandas here include Anustuph, Tristup along with many other new chandas or metrical forms. Worship of many devatas is also seen along with the acceptance of the Supreme Being. The rtvik of Atharvaveda is ब्रह्मा || Brahma who supervises the conduct of the Yajnas.

विषयम् ॥ Content

As the Atharva Veda Samhita has some special features it stands apart from the other three Vedas. It deals more with worldly things than with the other worlds and the yajnas mentioned here are utilized as a means to them. Amidst mundane subjects high philosophical ideas are also found in this Veda.

This Veda contains many types of mantras for the following worldly or materialistic purposes

• To ward off evils and hardship, snakes, and supernatural forces such as demons.
• To destroy enemies
• Marriage, cremation and other samskaras
• Description of diseases,their cure and herbal remedies
• For prolonging life
• For fulfilling one’s desires
• For wealth, trade and commerce
• Rajaneeti includes statecraft, defense systems of the country, training for soldiers, winning in wars.
• Related to Supreme Reality, Immortality and other philosophical matters.
• Creation and emergence of the Universe. .

The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a Veda during later ages though some schools do not consider it even in modern era.

The Atharva veda has been a primary source for information about Vedic culture, their customs and beliefs, the social economic conditions, agricultural and scientific matters, the requirements of people in everyday life in Vedic era ranging from mantras for snakes to those associated with kings and governance.

विशेष-विषयाः ॥ Famous Aspects

• पृथ्वी सूक्तं || Prithvi Suktam
• Madhuvidya Suktam
• Kanda 15 is called व्रात्यकाण्ड || Vratya kanda. It deals about people whose origin and nature is debated by many scholars, and they did not follow any kind of vaidika kriyas, nor had respect for any rituals.

ब्राह्मणानि आरण्यकानि उपनिषदः च ॥ Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads

Only one Brahmana called Gopatha Brahmana has been discovered. No Aranyaka of this Veda has come to light so far.

There are a number of Upanishads which are associated with this Veda. The well known Upanishads belonging to this Veda are :

1. Prasna Upanishad
2. Mundaka Upanishad
3. Mandukya Upanishad

Sub Classification of Vedas

Different texts of Vedic literature is further classified as follows.

संहिताः || Samhitas

Samhitas (Samskrit : संहिता) deal primarily with yagas and are collections of mantras in praise of deities for attaining prosperity in the world and happiness hereafter. There are four Vedic Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several shakas (recensions).

Yagas are of three types :

• Ekaha: A yaga that is completed in one day is called Ekaha. Ex: Jyotishtoma.
• Ahina: A yaga that is lasts between 2 to 12 days is called Ahina or sutya. Ex: a 12 day Sutyaka is Poundarika
• Satrayagam : A yaga that lasts from 12 days to a few years is called Satra. Ex : Gavamanas

In these samhitas, all karmas are described, they are of four types :

• Nityakarma : actions that are prescribed to be performed on a daily basis
• Naimittika karma
• Kamya karma
• Nishiddha karma

In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigveda, which is the oldest text in the world.

This portion is mainly meant for ब्रह्मचारी || Brahmacharis, those who are in the first stage of their lives.

ब्राह्मणानि || Brahmanas

आपस्तम्ब || Apastamba defines Brahmanas as ‘कर्मचोदना ब्राह्मणानि || Karmacodana Brahmanani’ meaning Brahmanas are injunctions for the performance of sacrificial rites (Apasthamba Shrau. Sut. 34 and 35). Some believe that what are not mantras are brahmanas (Jaimineeya Purvamimamsa 2.1.33)

Brahmanas though are not metrical like the Vedic mantras contain prose with patha paddhati or recitation methods to chant them. They are commentaries or explanation of ceremonial Srauta yajnas giving the meaning of mantras in Vedic Samhitas of the four Vedas and depict the socio-economic conditions and religious aspects of the era. They also contain some legends and debates about a few differences in the rituals. Each Vedic shakha (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost. A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda.

Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads. The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each Veda.

This portion of a Veda guides people in the performance of Vedic Karmas or sacrificial rituals; they are the prose explanations of the method of using the mantras in the Yajnas and other rituals. Brahmana is suitable for the गृहस्थ || Grihasthas (the householders), those belonging to the second stage in life.

अरण्यकानि || Aranyakas

Aranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treatisies" अरण्येऽधीयूरान् meaning texts to be studied in forests as mentioned in Taittiriya Aranyaka, were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies, from ritualisitic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.

This text is unavailable (as for Atharvana veda) or found as the last part of the Brahmanas, or are completely separated from the Brahmanas. For example, the last kanda of Shatapata Brahmana is Aranyaka for Shukla Yajurveda, whereas in Krishna Yajurveda, the Taittiriya Brahmana and Aranyaka are completely separate.

Aranyakas, however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure. They are a combination of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the word Aranyakas. One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in वानप्रस्थ || Vanaprastha (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-based Ashrama system of human life.

The Aranyaka portion is addressed to the people of that category offering a substitute for rituals. They teach methods of meditation based upon symbolical interpretations of sacrificial rites. It is a process of performing Yajnas and sacrifices at the mental level. For example Brihadaranyaka Upanishad starts with such analytical mental performance of Aswamedha Yajna. The Aranyakas are intended for the Vanaprasthas or people who prepare themselves for the last stage in life i.e. Sanyasa. Aranyakas form the transition link between the ritual of the Brahmanas and the philosophy of the Upanishads.

उपनिषदः || Upanishads

The number of works that go by the name Upanishad and available today in print exceeds 200. The Muktikopanishad gives a list of 108 Upanishads. However, the principal Upanishads are accepted to be those which Sri Adi Sankaracharya chose to comment upon.

Sri Sankaracharya was the earliest commentator on the Upanishads. He chose only 10 Upanishads for his commentaries. According to some scholars he commented upon 11 Upanishads. He refers to 4 more Upanishads in his commentary on Brahma Sutra namely Svetasvatara  Upanishad, Kousitaki Upanishad, Jaabaala Upanishad, Mahanarayana Upanishad, and Paingala Upanishad.

Considering the ones chosen by him for commenting and as reference material as the most ancient and authentic, they are termed as major or principal Upanishads. We may list them as follows:

TEN MAJOR UPANISHADS (Based on Sri Adi Shankaracharya's Commentaries)

1. Isavasya or Isopanishad
2. Kena Upanishad
3. Katha Upanishad
4. Prasna Upanishad
5. Mundaka Upanishad
6. Mandukya Upanishad
7. Taittiriya Upanishad
8. AitareyaUpanishad
9. Chandogya Upanishad
10. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad

The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas which discuss philosophical issues both in prose and metrical forms. They are commonly referred to as वेदान्त || Vedanta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Vedas" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda". The concepts of ब्रह्मन || Brahman (Ultimate Reality, Paramatma), आत्मन् || Atman (Soul, Self, Jivatma) and liberation of soul (Mukti Moksha) are central ideas in all the Upanishads and primarily focus on routes for obtaining Brahmavidya which on practice leads one to Mukti. The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.

They are the essence of the Vedas containing their knowledge aspects along with explanation of karmas (as in Upakosala's tending to fires in Chandogya Upanishad). The philosophy of the Upanishads occupies the highest pedestal in the spiritual knowledge. They speak about the identity of the Supreme Eternal Soul, the Brahman, the individual soul, the Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with जीवात्मा || Jivatma, परमात्मा || Paramatma, जगत् || Jagat Avidya, Karmaphalam, Punarjanma and जगदीश्वर || Jagadishwara.

Aranyakas are sometimes identified as karma-kanda (ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-kanda (spirituality section). In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are called Samhitas and the commentary are called the Brahmanas which together are identified as the ceremonial karma-kanda, while Aranyakas and Upanishads are together referred to as the jnana-kanda.