Pramana (प्रमाणम्)

Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाणम्) is the means or chief instrument of knowing valid knowledge (pramaa (प्रमा)). From the questions like who and what created the universe, determining the nature of objects, sprang an urge for investigation into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa). These queries led to investigation into identifying the criterion of what constitutes valid knowledge and the ways by which objects or things can be cognized ultimately theories of cognition have been formulated. Pramana is a subject that arose from the need to recognize valid knowledge and various theories have been proposed to describe the same.

परिचयः॥ Introduction

All thinkers in general have given their attention to the problem of cognition for a long time. Bharatiya tattva shastras are unique in that Jnana (ज्ञानम् । knowledge), Prama (प्रमा । Right or valid knowledge) and Aprama (अप्रमा । invalid knowledge) are clearly distinct entities. Western tradition defines 'knowledge' as truth, and justified true belief. Indian tradition does not have an equivalent word for belief. In Bharatiya shastras, Prama is explored in the context of fulfilling purusharthas, whereas western traditions do not have such an ultimate goal for exploring knowledge, thus for them knowledge is just for the sake of knowledge. Knowledge and Action are both related to the Mind. However, Action is dependent on the agent and his will (Kartr-tantra) while Knowledge is conditioned by its object (vastu-tantra). When a man decides to travel his will determines the mode of travel and the place to reach. This is not the case of Knowledge, it is independent of the will of the person, a pillar is a pillar and confirms to the vastu or object and does not change even if the someone mistakes it for a man standing.

Here for the sake of clarity, Jnana is considered as general knowledge, which on analysis or cognizance reveals true knowledge is called Prama or valid knowledge, and when this revelation is false it is called aprama or invalid knowledge.  

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ माने) in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्). The suffix 'lyut', being in the instrumental case. Pramana means the instrument by which some thing is rightly cognized.

The word Pramana signifies the instrument because (it is derived as) "by this is rightly known" (Pramiyate anena). Loosely the term stands for knowledge as well as for the means of valid knowledge but in Nyaya logic it is generally used in the second sense.

प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva

The tattva or the "true nature of", "the real knowledge about", "property really possessed by object", "assured cognition of an object" ; all these indicate an inquiry into the real state of things or objects. Both "Jnana" and "Prama" indicate some kind of knowledge, however

• ज्ञानम् । Jnana means all kinds of knowledge, true or false. Example: there is a rope or snake.
• यथार्थज्ञानम् । Yatharthajnana or Prama is when reality reveals true knowledge (valid knowledge). Example : knowledge of rope in a rope.
• अप्रमा । Aprama is when reality reveals false knowledge (invalid knowledge). Example : knowledge of snake in a rope.

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object.

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows

तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)

1. The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding
2. The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge
3. The Pramana (प्रमाणम्) : the instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge
4. The Pramaata (प्रमाता) : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of Arthatattva. So it can be said that valid knowledge is not possible if any one of them is absent. Western theories of philosophy use three factors namely, subject, object, and the resultant knowledge. Indian philosophy is distinct and unique in that the means or instrument of valid cognition or knowledge i.e., pramana.

Example : A very simplified common place example of these 4 constituents of Arthatattva may be given as about purchase fruits or vegetables in a market.

• Pramana is the standard weight bar say of 1Kg (means to measure).
• Prameya is the vegetable or fruits which have to be purchased.
• Prama is the definitive knowledge that a particular amount of vegetable weighed is as much as 1 Kg.
• Pramata is the person who is weighing and acquiring this knowledge of a specified quantity of vegetables or fruits of 1 Kg.

प्रमा ॥ Prama

According to Nyaya, as given previously Prama is a definite or certain (असं दिग्धम् । asandigdha), unerring (यथार्थ । yatartha) knowledge and it consists of knowing the object as it is.

Annambhatta in his Tarkasangraha explains, Yatartha jnana is Prama. He clearly defines the difference between Prama and Aprama as follows

॥ तद्वति तप्रकारकोऽनुभवो यथार्थः। यथा रजते इदं रजतमिति ज्ञानम्। सैव प्रमेच्युते ॥१९॥॥ (Tark. Samg. 3.19)

Summary : Thus Prama is that which pertains to यथार्थानुभवः। definite knowledge of an object which is true presentational in character, just as the knowledge an object of silver as "this is silver". Here the knowledge about the quality of silverness (रजतत्वम्) of the object is in toto without any distortion to silver. But knowledge is invalid (अयथार्थ । ayatartha) when a character not possessed by the object of cognition is attributed to that object and is called Aprama.

तदभाववति तत्प्रकारकोऽनुभवोऽयथार्थः। यथा शुक्ताविदं रजतमिति। सैव अप्रमा इत्युच्यते॥२०॥ (Tark. Samg. 3.20)

Summary : When a piece of shell is called "this is silver", then the cognition is invalid. For in this case "silverness" is a quality which does not belong to the shell but is being attributed to it is called Aprama.

Thus Prama has two aspects

1. Nature of the object
2. Test of verification or validity

There are other versions about what constitutes Prama by different Bharatiya shastras.

• Kapila defines Prama as determinate (confirmed after verification) knowledge not known before (अपूर्वनिश्चितज्ञानम्). (Samkhya)
• Prabhakara holds Prama as immediate experience (Anubhuti). (One school of Mimamsa)
• Bhatta mentions Prama as that which pertains to a novel object (Anadhigatatva). (Another school of Mimamsa)
• Advaitins hold that Prama consists of knowledge which is undeniable (Abadhita).

प्रमेयः ॥ Prameya

Nyaya sutras of Gautama explicitly define the Premaya. It is of 12 kinds.

आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम्।।९ ।।{प्रमेयौद्देशसूत्रम्}

Atma (आत्मा), Body (शरीरम्), Sense-organs (इन्द्रियाणि), Objects (अर्थः), Knowledge (बुद्धिः), Mind (मनः), Activity (प्रवृत्तिः), Defect (दोषः like Raga, dvesha etc), Rebirth (प्रेत्यभाव), Result (फलम्), Pain (दुःखा), and Release from worldly bonds (अपवर्गाः) constitute the objects of cognition.

Vatsyayana Bhashya Page 71 all bhashya under sutra 9. sarvaduhkhaprahanamapavarga iti. leave 2 sentence. Add next sentence till mithya jnanat samsara iti.

आत्मा ॥ Atma

इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि आत्मनः लिङ्गं इति ।।१०।। {आत्मलक्षणम्}

Meaning : Desire (इच्छा), desire to keep away from something (द्वेषः), Action (प्रयत्नः), pleasure, pain and knowledge (सुखदुःखज्ञानानि) are the marks of Atma.

Vatsyayana bhashya of Gautama Nyayasutra 9 explains it further. Atma (soul) is the drashta (perceiver of all that brings about pain and pleasure), the bhokta (experiencer of all pains and pleasures), sarvajna (knower of all knowledge), sarvanubhava (experience of all things).

शरीरम् ॥ Body

चेष्टेन्द्रियार्थाश्रयः शरीरम्।।११।। {शरीरलक्षणम्}

Meaning : The base or location for action (चेष्टा), sense-organs (इन्द्रियानि) and objects (अर्थः) is sharira (body).

इन्द्रियानि ॥ Sense-organs

घ्राणरसनचक्षुस्त्वक्श्रोत्राणि इन्द्रियाणि भूतेभ्यः ।।१२।। {इन्द्रियलक्षणम्}

Meaning : The sense organs ( organs of smell, taste, vision, sensation, audition) are made from material substances (panchamahabhutas).

अर्थः ॥ Objects

गन्धरसरूपस्पर्शशब्दाः पृथिव्यादिगुणाः तदर्थाः।।१४।।

Meaning : Odour, Taste, Color, Touch and Sound which are the qualities of material substances (prthvi, apah, tejah, vayu and akasha).

बुद्धिः ॥ Knowledge

बुद्धिः उपलब्धिः ज्ञानं इति अनर्थान्तरम्।।१५।।{बुद्धिलक्षणम्}

Summary : Buddhi is synonymous with knowledge (ज्ञानं) in Nyaya darshana.

मनः ॥ Manas

युगपत्ज्ञानानुत्पत्तिः मनसः लिङ्गम् ।।१६।। {मनोलक्षणम्}

Meaning : The non-appearance of simultaneous experience of all the senses is indicative of presence of Manas.

प्रवृत्तिः ॥ Action

प्रवृत्तिः वाग्बुद्धिशरीरारम्भः।।१७।।{प्रवृत्तिलक्षणम्}

Meaning : Activity consists of Speech, action of Mind and action of Body.

दोषाः ॥ Dosha

प्रवर्त्तनालक्षणाः दोषाः।।१८।।{दोषलक्षणम्}

Meaning : Doshas (defects imperfection) are the cause for inciting a person into activity.

प्रेत्यभावः ॥ Rebirth

पुनरुत्पत्तिः प्रेत्यभावः ।।१९।।{प्रेत्यभावलक्षणम्}

Meaning : Rebirth which consists of being born again after death is Pretyabhava.

फलम् ॥ Result

प्रवृत्तिदोषजनितः अर्थः फलम्।।२०।।{फललक्षणम्}

Meaning : Result in the form of Artha (Object) is what is produced due to action and dosha.

दुःख ॥ Pain

बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम्।।२१ ।। {दुःखलक्षणम्}

Meaning : The experience of suffering or injury consists of Pain.

अपवर्गः ॥ Release from Worldly Bonds

तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः।।२२ ।। {अपवर्गलक्षणम्}

Absolute release from the aforesaid Dukha or pain etc is Apavarga.

प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramanam

Pramana i.e., the instrument of Prama is the most fundamental and unique about the tattva shastras. Nyaya darshana deals extensively about the siddhantas of jnana (theory of Knowledge). The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.

प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्थ्थदर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ।... तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य समीहा प्रवृत्तिरित्युच्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)

Meaning : The effort of the agent (man) stimulated by the desire to acquire (Ipsa । ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing (जिहासा । Jihasa roga etc) is what is called प्रवृत्तिः (pravrtti । exertion). Two of these together inspire the agent into Prvritti or Action. (Page 20 of Reference )

अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)

Summary : The अर्थ (object or thing) cognised by means of Pramana, or the instrument of cognition is of four kinds, viz., Pleasure, Source of Pleasure, Pain, Source of Pain. These objects of cognition, however, are innumerable owing to the fact of the number of living creatures being infinite. (Page 22 of Reference ) According to another scholar Pramana is defined as प्रकृष्टरूपेण अनुमाति अनेन (Page 12 of Reference )

"To know an object correctly is a kind of proper measurement of an object. 'knowing' is metaphorically called 'measuring' through our cognition. As a valid cognition gives us a picture of a particular object, it may be described as 'intellectual measurement'."

Pramana and Pramanabhasa

The means of knowledge have reference to an object. Pramiina produces valid knowledge, the object of which exists in the actual world, whereas, Pramanabhasa produces only illusory knowledge.