Ancient Indian Psychology (भारतीय मनोविज्ञानम्)

Manovijnana (Samskrit: मनोविज्ञानम्) pertains to the science of the mind or of mental states and processes, and of human and animal behaviour. Broadly these aspects are studied in the modern branch of Psychology and Psychiatry. Understanding the mind, thought, actions of the sense organs and consciousness have remained as elusive subjects and beyond the reach of common understanding. Understanding the various mental processes and managing mental health has remained a major challenge to modern scientists to this day. It is time to reflect on the various siddhantas and methods used by ancient seers who made unfathomable advancements in the study of consciousness and mental processes.

The source of man's insights are twofold - exploring the wonders of the world outward and the states of the mind inward. In the Vedas, the boundless diversity of nature engages attention. In the Upanishads we return inwards to explore the depths of inner world. The interest of the seers has always been in understanding and in controlling the mental processes encountered in the inward journey. The Bharatiya way of philosophic analysis started with the reflection on the inner Self of man with the ultimate goal, of all mental training, being the attainment of Moksha. We find that the psychological and physiological disciplines developed in the Upanishads, the Yoga sutras, the Bhagavad Gita, and in the schools of Buddhism and Jainism. Practicing scholars were astonished alike at the psychosomatic views held by the great medical authorities of India, namely, Charaka and Sushruta. It has been one of the wonders in intellectual history that though there was no independent branch of study like Psychology in ancient India, the ancient thinkers had independently developed highly systematic views regarding mind and its operations, particularly with reference to mental health and well-being.

Introduction

Ancient Indian thought is not only rich in describing the metaphysical but also in psychological aspects. While there was no special discipline to study Manovijnana, loosely corresponding to the modern subject of Psychology, we find numerous valuable insights about this topic in as early as the Vedas. Each school of philosophy, medicine, aesthetics etc., developed its own theory of mind. The mind of man was looked upon as having three aspects: the sub-conscious, the conscious and the super-conscious. The psychic experiences such as telepathy and clairvoyance were considered to be neither abnormal nor miraculous. They were considered to be the powers of the mind which could be developed with effort. They were classified as siddhis, which were attained with training the mind, nevertheless were to be refrained from use. Siddhis such as clairvoyance and telepathy were looked upon as obstacles in the development of one's personality. The 'abnormal' psychic phenomena like ecstasy, trance etc were considered as the working of the 'superconscious mind'. The Yoga system in particular and other systems of thought refer to these superconscious states of the mind and how they can be deliberately induced and the pitfalls to be avoided in the process.

A few outstanding examples of well known contributions of Indian seers in the field of psychology include the following.

1. The Gayatri Mantra in Rigveda and Yajurveda
2. Shiva sankalpa sukta in Yajurveda
3. Understanding the power of the Self in Kena Upanishad
4. The four states of Consciousness in Mandukya Upanishad
5. Panchakoshas described in the Taittriya Upanishad

The Vedic thinkers were chiefly preoccupied with the aspects of consciousness, its relation to the body, sense organs, and mind to the states of consciousness, viz., waking, dreaming, sleep and above all the turiya or the fourth state. With the rise of theories of materialism (Charvaka, Lokayuta), Buddhism and Jainism, the focus shifted to attention, perception, inference and illusion. Memory, imagination, feelings and emotions, thoughts and a way to express them, their relation to the development of language were paid considerable contemplation. Apart from these dynamics of the mind, thoughts and behaviour, there was a great deal of concern regarding meditation, aesthetics, carnal pleasures and religion, all of which played a significant role in psychological processes of a human being.

The Mind and its Mysteries

The ancient seer had doubtless his share of joys and sorrows, passions and dejections, moods and urges in life. And he had the right sense to turn his attention to these, 'inner breezes' within his own heart. So it was the 'heart' (हृद्) that was involved in all these psychological experiences. In the role of poets who composed the suktas, they often spoke of

• 'the pangs of grief in the heart' (हृ॒त्सु शोकै॑... Rig. Veda. 10.103.12)
• 'holding fear in the heart' (भियं॒ दधा॑ना॒ हृद॑येषु॒... Rig. Veda. 10.84.7)
• 'praises with all the heart' (हृदामतिं... Rig. Veda. 3.26.8)

It is verily the 'heart' that is touched on when the intoxicating Soma enters the system. The heart indeed is the fountain of all 'song'. It is surely not the mere physical heart that is alluded to by the poet, but the psychological faculty characterized by 'feeling'; but of course the physical heart is the one bodily organ readily affected by intense feelings. It is different from the Manas (Mind), but its close relative.

Distinction between Hrday (हृदयम्) and Manas (मनः)

The heart is identified as the source of all involuntary, irrational and normally uncontrolled psychological processes. Fear enters, not mind, but heart (Rigveda. 10.84.7) as expressed by the poet saying, इन्द्र हृ॒दि यत्ते॑ ज॒घ्नुषो॒ भीरग॑च्छत् । "O Indra, if there arises fear in your heart at the time of killing Vrtra...." (Rigveda. 1.32.14). It is also not the mind but the heart that experiences longing, grief or pleasure. We see in the Yama Yami Samvada, the longing of Yami and accusations she throws (ब॒तो ब॑तासि यम॒ नैव ते॒ मनो॒ हृद॑यं चाविदाम ।) for the lack of affection towards her (Rigveda. 10.10).

The Vedic seer has rightly recognized an intimate connection between the heart and the mind; indeed many references point to the mind being located in the heart. However, mind has an independent consideration also. It is par excellence an instrument of reason, it symbolizes the rational faculty of man. Its function is likened to the winnowing of barley through the seive; the function being selective reception and filtration of data. Mind can be truthful, unruffled, mature, firm and sharp. It is essentially intellectual and only indirectly connected with our emotional life. Mind is even invoked to exercise restraint over the tempestuous surgings of the heart. Lovelorn Pururava implores his beloved Urvashi to return home and he asks her to 'stay with mind'. Mind is said to 'investigate and consider' into deeds. While the heart represents rather the stirred-up state of the individual, mind symbolizes the reflective aspect of mental life. Maintenance of mind contributes to life; and death is associated with the dissolution of mind.

One of the qualities of Mind is that it is volatile, turbulent, obstinate and restless, characterized by "chanchalatva", its control is as difficult as the control of wind.

चञ्चलं हि मन: कृष्ण प्रमाथि बलवद्दृढम् | तस्याहं निग्रहं मन्ये वायोरिव सुदुष्करम् || 34|| (Bhag. Gita. 6.33)

Not only was mind important in individual life, its contribution to social well-being was also recognized. The very last mantra of the Rigveda concludes with the celebrated prayer which emphasizes the psychological concord in social life:

स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.191.4)

Meaning: May our resolutions be uniform and our hearts united; May our minds be one, that we all live well together.

Methods to Analyze Mind

Ancient thinkers adopted some methods to analyze and study the problems of the mind and behaviour. These methods were not recorded as such and are found explained in almost each discipline of philosophy.

1. Observation was found to be a very important method in the study of behaviour.
2. Introspection
3. Reasoning
4. Analysis of Anubhava or Experience
5. Analysis through questions and seeking answers

The great emphasis on dhyana, meditation, is to enable an individual to follow the path so that he can have his own experience and verify for himself. Experience and realization are the dominant features of all Indian systems of thought. The guru-shishya relationship is akin to the relationship between a psychoanalyst and his patient in some respects. This is why it can be looked upon as a form of the clinical method according to Prof. Kuppuswamy.

Mind as a Cause of Bodily Ailments

The greater number of diseases are now believed to be functional and caused by maladjustment, conflict, frustration, or lack of mental balance with consequent disorder of the nervous system. How can the mind and nerves affect the body in such a way as to cause organic disease?

When the nerves do not function properly, ailments appear in certain organs. Psychologists tell us that many of the so called organic diseases had their beginning when the organs could not function properly owing to mental maladjustments, conflict, and consequent lack of balance in the nervous system. It is well known that the nervous system plays a vital and most important part in our lives. It is closely connected with the mind and is easily affected by the slightest mental disorder. Therefore, mental troubles which are reflected in the nervous system can be shown as the real cause of many functional diseases. Also many cases of insanity, neuroses and psychoses, can be traced to mental dissatisfaction and agitation, frustration and conflict.

Although western psychologists formed different schools of thought according to their various theories of the subjective and objective elements of consciousness and the relation of these elements to the physical body, they all studied the conscious elements only, ignoring the subconscious and superconscious states of mind. From their observations, many of them came to the conclusion that consciousness and soul had no existence separate from physical brain matter and that they were really only products of brain matter. Materialistic thinkers completely ignored the fact that there could be a separate existence of mind or consciousness.

Mind exists beyond body

Further the mind usually functions in ordinary persons through the nervous system and brain cells, just as electricity functions and is manifested through wires and electrical apparatus. Yet one cannot conclude that the electricity and the wires are identical. Similarly, the mind in its functionings, conscious or otherwise, cannot be identified with the instruments, such as nerves and brain cells, through which it works or has expression.

The trend of modern science, unlike the older schools of thought are taking a liberal point of view in recent years and are open to the conviction that the mind may continue to exist even after the dissolution of the body and brain.

According to Freud, Jung, and other psychologists, the greater portion of the mind is actually submerged, unknown to every one of us. Indian psychology agrees with them in this respect. The submerged mind, the subconscious state, is a potent factor and powerful enough to determine even conscious tendencies. Often we do not realize what influences are hidden there. A man may not be aware of the forces that lie beneath the surface of his mind, nor can these forces be suspected by an untrained observer. Indian psychologists call these hidden mental forces as samskaras. These samskaras are different from the Samskaras or purificatory sacraments prescribed in the Grhyasutras to be undergone from birth to death.

Aspirations of the Mind

Ancient Indian seer-psychologists do not agree with the view that man has a basic destructive tendency. Suicide, war, and all other such destructive tendencies are not expressions of the normal mind. It seems that Freud and other psychoanalysts make unnecessary and uncalled-for generalizations from the study of pathological cases. It is also equally illogical and superficial to trace the death or destructive urge even in religious self-abnegation and sacrifice. An unbiased understanding of the true spirit of religious culture will convince us that Freudian conclusions of this sort are thoroughly unjustified. The view of the Indian psychologists is just the opposite. They come to the conclusion that there is an urge for eternal happiness and eternal existence in the human mind. The search after abiding happiness, bliss, is the real motive power behind man’s activities both conscious and unconscious. According to the Indian psychological schools, the greatest expression of mind lies in its total illumination, which is achieved by the subjective methods of concentration and meditation and consequent mental integration. The mind must be synthesized in order for a person to achieve real success. Greatness of mind can be judged not by its ability in action but rather by its integration and unification.