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Revision as of 17:22, 8 January 2018

Template:Hindu scriptures A major component under Hindu texts come from Sanskrit literature. Sanskrit literature can be classified under six orthodox heads and four other literary heads. The Orthodox heads form the authoritative scriptures of the Hindus. The four other literary heads embody the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.[1]

The six scriptures are:

  1. Srutis
  2. Smritis
  3. Itihasas
  4. Puranas
  5. Agamas
  6. Darsanas

The four other literary writings are:

  1. Subhashitas
  2. Kavyas
  3. Natakas
  4. Alankaras

The Scriptures

The Srutis

Main article: Shruti_(श्रुति)

The Hindu texts were memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next. There are two historic classifications of Hindu texts: Shruti – that which is heard,[2] and Smriti – that which is remembered.[3]

The Srutis are called the Vedas. The Hindus have received the Vedas through revelation. Vedas are considered to be apauruṣeya, or entirely superhuman, without any author.[1] The Vedas are the foundational scriptures of the Hindus.[1]

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. The Yajur Veda is again divided into two parts- The Sukla and the Krishna. The Krishna or the Taittirya is the older book and the Sukla or the Vajasaneya is a later revelation to sage Yajnavalkya from Sun-God.[1] The Rig-Veda is divided into twenty one sections, the Yajur Veda into one hundred and nine sections, the Sama Veda into one thousand sections and the Atharva Veda into fifty sections. In all, the Veda is thus divided into one thousand one hundred and eighty recensions.[1]

Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types[1]:

  1. The Samhitas that comprise of mantras and benedictions.
  2. The Brahmanas that contain explanation of Mantras and rituals
  3. The Aranyakas that are mystical texts which give philosophical interpretation of the rituals. These are intended for the Vanaprasthas or hermits, who prepare themselves for taking Sanyasa
  4. The Upanishads that discuss meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge.

Another way of identifying components of Veda[4]

The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda (कर्म खण्ड), Upasana-Kanda (उपासना खण्ड) and Jnana-Kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड). The Karma-Kanda or ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or worship-section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or knowledge-section deals with the knowledge of Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads Jnana-Kanda. 

Main components of Srutis are as follows: 

The Samhitas[5]

The Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest book of the Hindus. Its priest is called the Hotri. The Yajur-Veda Samhita is mostly in prose and is meant to be used by the Adhvaryu, the Yajur-Vedic priest for explanations of the rites, supplementing the Rig-Vedic Mantras. The Sama-Veda Samhita is mostly borrowed from Rig-Vedic Samhita and is meant to be sung by the Udgatri, the Sania-Vedic priest. the The Atharva-Veda Samhita is meant to be used by the Brahma, the Atharva-Vedic priest, to correct the mispronunciations and wrong performances that may accidentally be committed by the other three priests.

The Brahmanas and the Aranyakas[5]

There are two Brahmanas to the Rig-Veda —the Aitareya and the Sankhayana. The Shatapath Brahmana belongs to the Sukla Yajur-Veda. The Krishna Yajur-Veda has the Taittiriya and the Maitrayana Brahmanas. The Tandya or Panchavimsa, the Shadvimsa, the Chhandogya, the Adbhuta, the Arsheya and the Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the Sama Veda. The Brahmana of the Atharva-Veda is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an Aranyaka.

The Upanishads

Main article: Upanishads

The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas. The teaching based on them is called Vedanta. The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads,Template:Sfn[6] and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[6] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[7][8] Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[9][7]

There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches or recensions, i.e., 21, 109, 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas, the Rig-Veda the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva-Veda.[5]

The different philosophers of India belonging to different schools, such as Monism, Qualified Monism, Dualism, Pure Monism, Difference-cum-non-difference, etc., have acknowledged the supreme authority of the Upanishads. They have given their own interpretations and they have built their philosophy on the foundation of the Upanishads.

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads.[10][11] The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and AranyakasTemplate:Sfn and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally. The most important Upanishads are Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara and Maitrayani.

Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the Sama Veda. The Brahmana of the Atharva-Veda is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an Aranyaka.

The Upa-Vedas

Main article: Upaveda_(उपवेद)

There are four Upa-Vedas or subsidiary Vedas, viz., the Ayurveda, the Dhanurveda, the Gandharva Veda and the Sthapatya Veda forming auxiliaries to the four Vedas[12]. Some scholers consider Artha Shastra as the fourth Upaveda instead of Sthapatya Veda.

The Upavedas supplement the Vedas with more specific applications of Vedic teachings into the cultural field.

S. No. Upaveda Name Concerned with Associated with Veda
1 Ayurveda Science of Health and Life Atharva Veda
2 Dhanurveda Science of Warfare / Martial Arts Rig Veda
3 Sthapatya Veda or Shilpa Veda Science of Engineering and Architecture Yajur Veda
4 Gandharva Veda Music, poetry and dance Sama Veda
4* Artha Shastra Public administration, governance, economy and polity Yajur Veda

The Vedangas

Main article: Vedanga

There are four Upa-Vedas or

The Smritis

Main article: Smriti

The Smriti texts are a specific body of Hindu texts attributed to an author,[13] as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than Sruti in Hinduism.[3] The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedāngas, the Hindu epics, the Sutras and Shastras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, the Puranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, the Bhasyas, and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.[14][15]

Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, many others in regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages.[16] Prior to the start of the common era.


Post-Vedic texts

The texts that appeared afterwards were called smriti. Smriti literature includes various Shastras and Itihasas (epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata), Harivamsa Puranas, Agamas and Darshanas.

The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to later half of the 1st millennium BCE. The Dharma-shastras (law books), derivatives of the Dharma-sutras. Other examples were bhautikashastra "physics", rasayanashastra "chemistry", jīvashastra "biology", vastushastra "architectural science", shilpashastra "science of sculpture", arthashastra "economics" and nītishastra "political science".[17] It also includes Tantra and Agama literature.[18]

This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy.[19][20]

The Bhagavad Gita

Main article: Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita is a 700–verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic Mahabharata. This scripture contains a conversation between Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide Krishna on a variety of philosophical issues. Commentators see the setting of the Gita in a battlefield as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of the human life. The Bhagavad Gita's call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the Indian independence movement including Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who referred to the Gita as his "spiritual dictionary". Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on the essentials, beginning with Adi Sankara's commentary on the Gita in the 8th century CE.

The Puranas

Main article: Puranas

The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.[21] Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,[22][23] several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.[24][25]

There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas),[26] with over 400,000 verses.[21] The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,[26] but are considered a Smriti.[27] These Hindu texts have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.[28] The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.[29][30]

The Tevaram Saivite hymns

The Tevaram is a body of remarkable hymns exuding Bhakti composed more than 1400–1200 years ago in the classical Tamil language by three Saivite composers. They are credited with igniting the Bhakti movement in the whole of India.

Divya Prabandha Vaishnavite hymns

The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira (4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD [1], by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are known as the Divya Desams.[citation needed]

In South India, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered as equal to the Vedas, hence the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100+ verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaaril Maaran Sadagopan) of Thiruk Kurugoor.[citation needed]

Other Hindu texts

Ancient and medieval era Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows,

Field Reviewer Reference
Agriculture and food Gyula Wojtilla [31]
Architecture P Acharya,
B Dagens		 [32][33]
Devotionalism Karen Pechelis [34]
Drama, dance and performance arts AB Keith,
Rachel Baumer and James Brandon,
Mohan Khokar		 [35][36][37]
Education, school system Hartmut Scharfe [38]
Epics John Brockington [39]
Gnomic and didactic literature Ludwik Sternbach [40]
Grammar Hartmut Scharfe [41]
Law and jurisprudence J Duncan M Derrett [42]
Lexicography Claus Vogel [43]
Mathematics and exact sciences Kim Plofker
David Pingree		 [44][45]
Medicine MS Valiathan,
Kenneth Zysk		 [46][47]
Music Emmie te Nijenhuis,
Lewis Rowell		 [48][49]
Mythology Ludo Rocher [50]
Philosophy Karl Potter [51]
Poetics Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard [52]
Gender and Sex Johann Jakob Meyer [53]
State craft, politics Patrick Olivelle [54]
Tantrism, Agamas Teun Goudriaan [55]
Temples, Sculpture Stella Kramrisch [56]
Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads) Jan Gonda [57]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 28
  2. ↑ James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 9780823931798, page 645
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 656-657
  4. ↑ Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 31
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 32
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
  8. ↑ Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";
    Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210
  9. ↑ Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
  10. ↑ Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1
  11. ↑ E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299
  12. ↑ All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 33
  13. ↑ Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-1867-6, pages 2-3
  14. ↑ Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130
  15. ↑ Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824820855, pages 16-18
  16. ↑ Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page ix-xliii
  17. ↑ Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447026765
  18. ↑ Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447020916, pages 7-14
  19. ↑ Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, pages 2-5
  20. ↑ Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0779-2
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 437-439
  22. ↑ John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791413821, pages 185-204
  23. ↑ Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, page 139
  24. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21
  25. ↑ Nair, Shantha N. (2008). Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice. Hindology Books. p. 266. ISBN 978-81-223-1020-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, ISBN 978-8120839724, page xii, 4
  27. ↑ Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, page 503
  28. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 12-13, 134-156, 203-210
  29. ↑ Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page xli
  30. ↑ Thompson, Richard L. (2007). The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 10. ISBN 978-81-208-1919-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  31. ↑ Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447053068
  32. ↑ PK Acharya (1946), An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture, Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6
  33. ↑ Bruno Dagens (1995), MAYAMATA : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography, ISBN 978-8120835252
  34. ↑ Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903
  35. ↑ The Sanskrit Drama, Oxford University Press
  36. ↑ Rachel Baumer and James Brandon (1993), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8-120807723
  37. ↑ Mohan Khokar (1981), Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, Peter Owen Publishers, ISBN 978-0720605747
  38. ↑ Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004125568
  39. ↑ John Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004102606
  40. ↑ Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 9783447015462
  41. ↑ Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228
  42. ↑ J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447015195
  43. ↑ Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228
  44. ↑ Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691120676
  45. ↑ David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0871692139
  46. ↑ MS Valiathan, The Legacy of Caraka, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-8125025054
  47. ↑ Kenneth Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814011
  48. ↑ Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature ; v. 6 : Scientific and technical literature ; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447018319
  49. ↑ Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226730336
  50. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225
  51. ↑ Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8-120803094
  52. ↑ Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228
  53. ↑ JJ Meyer, Sexual Life in Ancient India, Vol 1 and 2, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-1482615883
  54. ↑ Patrick Olivelle, King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199891825
  55. ↑ Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447020911
  56. ↑ Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802223
  57. ↑ Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447016035

Bibliography

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  • Deussen, Paul; Bedekar, V.M. (tr.); Palsule (tr.), G.B. (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
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  • Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195070453.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
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Further reading

  • R.C. Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-0679410782
  • Dominic Goodall, Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783
  • Jessica Frazier (2014), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1472511515

External links

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