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The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for their logically-structured atomism. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents. The concept of avayavin (whole) and avayava (constituent part) has shaped the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This school of thought uses a logical and causal framework to explain how invisible particles combine to form the visible universe.<ref name=":13">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 461-469</ref>  

The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for their logically-structured atomism. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents. The concept of avayavin (whole) and avayava (constituent part) has shaped the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This school of thought uses a logical and causal framework to explain how invisible particles combine to form the visible universe.<ref name=":13">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 461-469</ref>  

According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>  

According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>  

  The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).

  The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).

#tejas or fire - color

#tejas or fire - color

#vayu or air - touch

#vayu or air - touch

These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are partless and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha. Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />

These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.  

 

 

 

Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory based on Nyaya and Vaiseshika texts:<ref name=":13" />

Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory based on Nyaya and Vaiseshika texts:<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":4" />

* '''Indivisible:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.

*'''Indivisible:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.

* '''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.

*'''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.

* '''Qualitative Differentiation:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.

*'''Qualitative Differentiation:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.

* '''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.

*'''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.

* '''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.  

*'''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.

* '''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.

*'''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.

* '''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.  

*'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.

* '''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.

*'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.

* '''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, they are theoretically regarded as spherical

*'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)

* '''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.

*'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.

Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":52">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>

While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />

Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).

Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).

===Effect of Heat ===

===Effect of Heat ===

A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />

A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. Heat and light, are the different forms of the same essential entity, tejas according to Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" /> The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />

- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)

- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)

== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==

== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Chemistry]]

[[Category:Chemistry]]