Difference between revisions of "Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara (भारतीयसांस्कृतिकपरम्परा)"
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| − | Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara (Samskrit : भारतीयसांस्कृतिकपरम्परा) or Indian Traditional Literary series of works include the major component of Bharatiya texts coming from Samskrit literature. Samskrit literature can be classified under two headings viz., '''Vedas and''' '''Vaidika Sahitya''' consisting of ancient literature and '''Laukika Sahitya''' including the more recent classical samskrit works. The Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya is a collection | + | Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara (Samskrit : भारतीयसांस्कृतिकपरम्परा) or Indian Traditional Literary series of works include the major component of Bharatiya texts coming from Samskrit literature. Samskrit literature can be classified under two headings viz., '''Vedas and''' '''Vaidika Sahitya''' consisting of ancient literature and '''Laukika Sahitya''' including the more recent classical samskrit works. The Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya is a collection of the authoritative texts of Sanatana Dharma, while Laukika Sahitya embody the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref> |
===Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya=== | ===Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya=== | ||
| − | The | + | The texts under this heading are:<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref>Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> |
| − | #[[Shruti (श्रुतिः)|Srutis]] (Vedas, Vedabhashyas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas example : Rig veda, Yajus samhita) | + | #[[Shruti (श्रुतिः)|Srutis]] also called Amnaya and Trayi ([[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]], Vedabhashyas, [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]], Upanishads example : Rig veda, Yajus samhita) |
| − | #Smritis ( | + | #Smritis ([[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Vaidika Vangmaya]] such as Vedangas, Smritis or Dharmashastras, Puranas, ) |
| − | + | #Agamas (Example : Shaiva and Vaishnava Agamas) | |
| − | + | #Darsanas (Astika Darshanas, example : Nyaya darshana)<ref name=":42222" /> | |
| − | #Agamas | ||
| − | #Darsanas | ||
===Laukika Sahitya=== | ===Laukika Sahitya=== | ||
| − | The classical literary writings include different types of writings classified variously : | + | The classical literary writings include different types of writings classified variously :<ref name=":42222" /> |
#Mahakavyas (Poetry, example : Kalidasa Mahakavi's Raghuvamsha) | #Mahakavyas (Poetry, example : Kalidasa Mahakavi's Raghuvamsha) | ||
#Rupakas or Natakas (Drama, example : Mricchakatika, Pratimanataka) | #Rupakas or Natakas (Drama, example : Mricchakatika, Pratimanataka) | ||
| Line 19: | Line 17: | ||
#Nitikavyas (Didactic poetry, example : Panchatantra and Hitopadesha) | #Nitikavyas (Didactic poetry, example : Panchatantra and Hitopadesha) | ||
In the DharmaWiki portal, articles pertaining to the Vedas and Vaidika Vangmaya are discussed while information pertaining to Laukika Sahitya is outside the scope of this project. | In the DharmaWiki portal, articles pertaining to the Vedas and Vaidika Vangmaya are discussed while information pertaining to Laukika Sahitya is outside the scope of this project. | ||
| − | |||
==Vedas and Vaidika Vangmaya== | ==Vedas and Vaidika Vangmaya== | ||
===The Shrutis=== | ===The Shrutis=== | ||
{{Main|Shruti_(श्रुतिः)}}The Vaidika texts were memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, hence preserved over thousands of years. There are two classifications of Hindu texts: ''[[Shruti]]'' – that which is heard, and ''[[Smriti]]'' – that which is remembered. | {{Main|Shruti_(श्रुतिः)}}The Vaidika texts were memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, hence preserved over thousands of years. There are two classifications of Hindu texts: ''[[Shruti]]'' – that which is heard, and ''[[Smriti]]'' – that which is remembered. | ||
| − | The Srutis are called the [[Veda (वेद)|Vedas]]. The Hindus have received the Vedas through revelation. Vedas are considered to be ''[[Apauruseya|apauruṣeya]]'', or entirely superhuman, without any author.<ref name=": | + | The Srutis are called the [[Veda (वेद)|Vedas]]. The Hindus have received the Vedas through revelation. Vedas are considered to be ''[[Apauruseya|apauruṣeya]]'', or entirely superhuman, without any author.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 28</ref> The Vedas are the foundational scriptures of the Hindus.<ref name=":022" /> |
There are four Vedas: | There are four Vedas: | ||
| Line 31: | Line 28: | ||
#[[Samaveda]] | #[[Samaveda]] | ||
#[[Atharvaveda]] | #[[Atharvaveda]] | ||
| − | The Yajur Veda is again divided into two parts- The Sukla and the Krishna. The Krishna or the Taittirya is the older book and the Sukla or the Vajasaneya is a later revelation to sage [[Yagnyavalkya|Yajnavalkya]] from Surya.<ref name=": | + | The Yajur Veda is again divided into two parts- The Sukla and the Krishna. The Krishna or the Taittirya is the older book and the Sukla or the Vajasaneya is a later revelation to sage [[Yagnyavalkya|Yajnavalkya]] from Surya.<ref name=":022" /> The Rig-Veda is divided into twenty one sections, the Yajur Veda into one hundred and nine sections, the Sama Veda into one thousand sections and the Atharva Veda into fifty sections. In all, the Veda is thus divided into one thousand one hundred and eighty recensions. |
| − | Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types<ref name=": | + | Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types<ref name=":022" />: |
#The [[Samhita]]s that comprise of mantras and benedictions. | #The [[Samhita]]s that comprise of mantras and benedictions. | ||
#The [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] that contain explanation of Mantras and rituals | #The [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] that contain explanation of Mantras and rituals | ||
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'''Another way of identifying components of Veda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 31</ref>''' | '''Another way of identifying components of Veda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 31</ref>''' | ||
| − | The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda (कर्म खण्ड), Upasana-Kanda (उपासना खण्ड) and Jnana-Kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड). The Karma-Kanda or ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or worship-section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or knowledge-section deals with the knowledge of Brahman. The [[Samhita|Samhitas]] and the [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] constitute Karma-Kanda; the [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]] Upasana-Kanda; and the [[Upanishads]] Jnana-Kanda. | + | The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda (कर्म खण्ड), Upasana-Kanda (उपासना खण्ड) and Jnana-Kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड). The Karma-Kanda or ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or worship-section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or knowledge-section deals with the knowledge of Brahman. The [[Samhita|Samhitas]] and the [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] constitute Karma-Kanda; the [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]] Upasana-Kanda; and the [[Upanishads]] Jnana-Kanda. |
'''Main components of Srutis are as follows:''' | '''Main components of Srutis are as follows:''' | ||
| − | ====The Samhitas<ref name=": | + | ====The Samhitas<ref name=":122">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 32</ref> ==== |
The '''Rig-Veda Samhita''' is the oldest book of the Hindus. Its priest is called the Hotri. The '''Yajur-Veda Samhita''' is mostly in prose and is meant to be used by the Adhvaryu, the Yajur-Vedic priest for explanations of the rites, supplementing the Rig-Vedic Mantras. The '''Sama-Veda Samhita''' is mostly borrowed from Rig-Vedic Samhita and is meant to be sung by the Udgatri, the Sania-Vedic priest. the '''Atharva-Veda Samhita''' is meant to be used by the Brahma, the Atharva-Vedic priest, to correct the mispronunciations and wrong performances that may accidentally be committed by the other three priests. | The '''Rig-Veda Samhita''' is the oldest book of the Hindus. Its priest is called the Hotri. The '''Yajur-Veda Samhita''' is mostly in prose and is meant to be used by the Adhvaryu, the Yajur-Vedic priest for explanations of the rites, supplementing the Rig-Vedic Mantras. The '''Sama-Veda Samhita''' is mostly borrowed from Rig-Vedic Samhita and is meant to be sung by the Udgatri, the Sania-Vedic priest. the '''Atharva-Veda Samhita''' is meant to be used by the Brahma, the Atharva-Vedic priest, to correct the mispronunciations and wrong performances that may accidentally be committed by the other three priests. | ||
| − | ====The Brahmanas and the Aranyakas<ref name=": | + | ====The Brahmanas and the Aranyakas<ref name=":122" /> ==== |
There are two [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] to the Rig-Veda —the Aitareya and the Sankhayana. The [[Shatapatha Brahmana|Shatapath Brahmana]] belongs to the Sukla [[Yajurveda|Yajur-Veda]]. The Krishna [[Yajurveda|Yajur-Veda]] has the Taittiriya and the Maitrayana Brahmanas. The Tandya or Panchavimsa, the Shadvimsa, the Chhandogya, the Adbhuta, the Arsheya and the Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]]. The Brahmana of the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]] is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an [[Aranyaka]]. | There are two [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] to the Rig-Veda —the Aitareya and the Sankhayana. The [[Shatapatha Brahmana|Shatapath Brahmana]] belongs to the Sukla [[Yajurveda|Yajur-Veda]]. The Krishna [[Yajurveda|Yajur-Veda]] has the Taittiriya and the Maitrayana Brahmanas. The Tandya or Panchavimsa, the Shadvimsa, the Chhandogya, the Adbhuta, the Arsheya and the Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]]. The Brahmana of the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]] is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an [[Aranyaka]]. | ||
====The Upanishads==== | ====The Upanishads==== | ||
| − | {{Main|Upanishads}}The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the [[Vedas]]. The teaching based on them is called [[Vedanta]]. The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishad]]s,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=59}}<ref name=" | + | {{Main|Upanishads}}The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the [[Vedas]]. The teaching based on them is called [[Vedanta]]. The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishad]]s,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=59}}<ref name="ptraju22">PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36</ref> and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name="ptraju22" /> The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<ref name="wendydonigerupan22">Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; '''Quote''': "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210</ref> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.<ref name="olivelleexcel22">Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; '''Quote''': "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref><ref name="wendydonigerupan22" /> |
| − | |||
| − | Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210 | ||
| − | </ref> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.<ref name=" | ||
| − | There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches or recensions, i.e., 21, 109, 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas, the [[Rigveda|Rig-Veda]] the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]], the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]] and the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]].<ref name=": | + | There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches or recensions, i.e., 21, 109, 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas, the [[Rigveda|Rig-Veda]] the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]], the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]] and the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]].<ref name=":122" /> |
The different philosophers of India belonging to different schools, such as Monism, Qualified Monism, Dualism, Pure Monism, Difference-cum-non-difference, etc., have acknowledged the supreme authority of the Upanishads. They have given their own interpretations and they have built their philosophy on the foundation of the Upanishads. | The different philosophers of India belonging to different schools, such as Monism, Qualified Monism, Dualism, Pure Monism, Difference-cum-non-difference, etc., have acknowledged the supreme authority of the Upanishads. They have given their own interpretations and they have built their philosophy on the foundation of the Upanishads. | ||
| − | More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads.<ref name=" | + | More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads.<ref name="stephenphillips22">Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1</ref><ref>E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299</ref> The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyakas]]''{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=56}} and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down [[Oral tradition|verbally]]. The most important Upanishads are Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara and Maitrayani. |
Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]]. The Brahmana of the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]] is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an [[Aranyaka]]. | Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama Veda]]. The Brahmana of the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]] is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an [[Aranyaka]]. | ||
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[[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa]] is the method of ritual. The [[Srauta Sutras]] which explain the ritual of sacrifices belong to Kalpa. The [[Sulba Sutras]], which deal with measurements which are necessary for laying out the sacrificial areas, also belong to Kalpa. The [[Grihya Sutras]] which concern domestic life, and the Dharma Sutras which deal with ethics, customs and laws, also belong to Kalpa. The Pratishakhyas, Padapathas, Kramapathas, Upalekhas, Anukramanis, Daivatsamhitas, Parishishtas, Prayogas, Paddhatis, Karikas, Khilas and Vyuhas are further elaborations in the rituals of the Kalpa Sutras. | [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa]] is the method of ritual. The [[Srauta Sutras]] which explain the ritual of sacrifices belong to Kalpa. The [[Sulba Sutras]], which deal with measurements which are necessary for laying out the sacrificial areas, also belong to Kalpa. The [[Grihya Sutras]] which concern domestic life, and the Dharma Sutras which deal with ethics, customs and laws, also belong to Kalpa. The Pratishakhyas, Padapathas, Kramapathas, Upalekhas, Anukramanis, Daivatsamhitas, Parishishtas, Prayogas, Paddhatis, Karikas, Khilas and Vyuhas are further elaborations in the rituals of the Kalpa Sutras. | ||
| − | Among the Kalpa Sutras, the Asvalayana, Sankhyana and the Sambhavya belong to the [[Rigveda|Rig-Veda]]. The Mashaka, Latyayana, Drahyayana, Gobhila and Khadira belong to the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama-Veda]]. The Katyayana and Paraskara belong to the [[Yajurveda|Sukla Yajur-Veda]]. The Apastamba, Hiranyakesi, Bodhayana, Bharadvaja, Manava, Vaikhanasa and the Kathaka belong to the Krishna [[Yajurveda|Yajur-Veda]]. The Vaitana and the Kaushika belong to the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]]. | + | Among the Kalpa Sutras, the Asvalayana, Sankhyana and the Sambhavya belong to the [[Rigveda|Rig-Veda]]. The Mashaka, Latyayana, Drahyayana, Gobhila and Khadira belong to the [[Samaveda (सामवेद)|Sama-Veda]]. The Katyayana and Paraskara belong to the [[Yajurveda|Sukla Yajur-Veda]]. The Apastamba, Hiranyakesi, Bodhayana, Bharadvaja, Manava, Vaikhanasa and the Kathaka belong to the Krishna [[Yajurveda|Yajur-Veda]]. The Vaitana and the Kaushika belong to the [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]]. |
===The Smritis=== | ===The Smritis=== | ||
| − | {{Main|Smriti}}Smritis are ancient law-codes dealing with the sanatana-Varnasrama-Dharma. They supplement and explain the ritualistic injunctions called Vidhis in the Vedas. The Smriti Sastra is based on the Sruti. The Smriti stands next in authority to the Sruti. It explains and develops Dharma. It lays down the laws which regulate (Hindu) national, social, family and individual obligations. The works which are expressly called Smritis are the law books, Dharma Sastras. The laws for regulating Hindu society from time to time are codified in the Smritis. The Smritis have laid down definite rules and laws to guide the individuals and communities in their daily conduct and to regulate their manners and customs. The Smritis have given detailed instructions, according to the conditions of the time, to all classes of men regarding their duties in life. The Hindu learns how one has to spend his whole life from these Smritis. The duties of Varnasrama and all ceremonies are clearly given in these books<ref name=": | + | {{Main|Smriti}}Smritis are ancient law-codes dealing with the sanatana-Varnasrama-Dharma. They supplement and explain the ritualistic injunctions called Vidhis in the Vedas. The Smriti Sastra is based on the Sruti. The Smriti stands next in authority to the Sruti. It explains and develops Dharma. It lays down the laws which regulate (Hindu) national, social, family and individual obligations. The works which are expressly called Smritis are the law books, Dharma Sastras. The laws for regulating Hindu society from time to time are codified in the Smritis. The Smritis have laid down definite rules and laws to guide the individuals and communities in their daily conduct and to regulate their manners and customs. The Smritis have given detailed instructions, according to the conditions of the time, to all classes of men regarding their duties in life. The Hindu learns how one has to spend his whole life from these Smritis. The duties of Varnasrama and all ceremonies are clearly given in these books<ref name=":222">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 35-37</ref>. |
| − | The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the sages of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=": | + | The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the sages of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":222" /> |
| − | ====The Celebrated Hindu Law Givers<ref name=": | + | ====The Celebrated Hindu Law Givers<ref name=":222" /> ==== |
During course of history, a great lawgiver would take birth amd this person would codify the existing laws and remove those which had become obsolete. He/ she would make some alterations, adaptations, readjustments, additions and, subtractions, to suit the needs of the time and see that the way of living of the people would be in accordance with the teachings of the Veda. | During course of history, a great lawgiver would take birth amd this person would codify the existing laws and remove those which had become obsolete. He/ she would make some alterations, adaptations, readjustments, additions and, subtractions, to suit the needs of the time and see that the way of living of the people would be in accordance with the teachings of the Veda. | ||
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great sages. The Smritis are named after them. There is [[Manu Smriti]] or Manava Dharma-Sastra (the Laws of Manu or the Institutes of Manu), Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti. Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law. Even the Government of India are applying some of these laws. There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Sastras. The most important are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara. The other fifteen are those of Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka. The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured. | Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great sages. The Smritis are named after them. There is [[Manu Smriti]] or Manava Dharma-Sastra (the Laws of Manu or the Institutes of Manu), Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti. Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law. Even the Government of India are applying some of these laws. There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Sastras. The most important are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara. The other fifteen are those of Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka. The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured. | ||
| − | ====Need for a New Law-Code<ref name=": | + | ====Need for a New Law-Code<ref name=":222" /> ==== |
It is not possible to follow some of the laws of Manu at the present time. We can follow their spirit and not the letter. As society advances, it outgrows certain laws which were valid and helpful at a particular stage of its growth. Our present society has considerably changed. A new Smriti to suit the requirements of this age is very necessary. | It is not possible to follow some of the laws of Manu at the present time. We can follow their spirit and not the letter. As society advances, it outgrows certain laws which were valid and helpful at a particular stage of its growth. Our present society has considerably changed. A new Smriti to suit the requirements of this age is very necessary. | ||
===The Itihasas=== | ===The Itihasas=== | ||
| − | {{Main|Itihasas}}There are four books under this heading<ref name=": | + | {{Main|Itihasas}}There are four books under this heading<ref name=":322">Swami Sivananda, All About HInduism, Page 38-41</ref>: |
#Valmiki-Ramayana | #Valmiki-Ramayana | ||
#Yogavasishtha | #Yogavasishtha | ||
#Mahabharata | #Mahabharata | ||
#Harivamsa | #Harivamsa | ||
| − | These four books embody all that is in the Vedas, but only in a simpler manner. These are called the Suhrit-Samhitas or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are called the Prabhu-Samhitas or the Commanding Treatises with great authority.<ref name=": | + | These four books embody all that is in the Vedas, but only in a simpler manner. These are called the Suhrit-Samhitas or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are called the Prabhu-Samhitas or the Commanding Treatises with great authority.<ref name=":322" /> |
| − | These works explain the great universal truths in the form of historical narratives, stories and dialogues. These are very interesting volumes and are liked by all, from the inquisitive child to the intellectual scholar. The Itihasas give us beautiful stories of absorbing interest and importance, through which all the fundamental teachings of Hinduism are impressed on one's mind. The laws of Smritis and the principles of the Vedas are stamped firmly on the minds of the Hindus through the noble and marvellous deeds of their great national heroes. We get a clear idea of Hinduism from these sublime stories. The common man cannot comprehend the high abstract philosophy of the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras. Hence, the compassionate sages Valmiki and Vyasa wrote the Itihasas for the benefit of common people. The same philosophy is presented with analogies and parables in a tasteful form to the common run of mankind.<ref name=": | + | These works explain the great universal truths in the form of historical narratives, stories and dialogues. These are very interesting volumes and are liked by all, from the inquisitive child to the intellectual scholar. The Itihasas give us beautiful stories of absorbing interest and importance, through which all the fundamental teachings of Hinduism are impressed on one's mind. The laws of Smritis and the principles of the Vedas are stamped firmly on the minds of the Hindus through the noble and marvellous deeds of their great national heroes. We get a clear idea of Hinduism from these sublime stories. The common man cannot comprehend the high abstract philosophy of the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras. Hence, the compassionate sages Valmiki and Vyasa wrote the Itihasas for the benefit of common people. The same philosophy is presented with analogies and parables in a tasteful form to the common run of mankind.<ref name=":322" /> |
====Ramayana and Mahabharata==== | ====Ramayana and Mahabharata==== | ||
| − | The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful Sastras of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us Clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilisation and culture, her manufactures etc.<ref name=": | + | The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful Sastras of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us Clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilisation and culture, her manufactures etc.<ref name=":322" /> |
====Ramayana==== | ====Ramayana==== | ||
| − | The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri [[Rama|Ramachandra]], the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand verses by Sri Valmiki.<ref name=": | + | The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri [[Rama|Ramachandra]], the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand verses by Sri Valmiki.<ref name=":322" /> |
====The Mahabharata==== | ====The Mahabharata==== | ||
| − | The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopaedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Lord Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand verses by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa.<ref name=": | + | The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopaedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Lord Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand verses by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa.<ref name=":322" /> |
=====The Bhagavad-Gita===== | =====The Bhagavad-Gita===== | ||
| − | The most important part of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita. It is a marvellous dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield, before the commencement of the great war. Bhagavan Sri Krishna became the charioteer of Arjuna. Sri Krishna explained the essentials of Dharma to Arjuna. Just as the Upanishads contain the cream of the Vedas, so does the Gita contain the cream of the Upanishads. Arjuna saw his dear relatives and teachers, before him, in the battle-field. He fainted and refused to fight against them. Then Lord Krishna imparted knowledge of the Self to Arjuna and convinced him that it was his duty to fight regardless of consequences. Afterwards Arjuna gave up his Moha, or delusion. All his doubts were cleared. He fought against the Kauravas and achieved victory.<ref name=": | + | The most important part of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita. It is a marvellous dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield, before the commencement of the great war. Bhagavan Sri Krishna became the charioteer of Arjuna. Sri Krishna explained the essentials of Dharma to Arjuna. Just as the Upanishads contain the cream of the Vedas, so does the Gita contain the cream of the Upanishads. Arjuna saw his dear relatives and teachers, before him, in the battle-field. He fainted and refused to fight against them. Then Lord Krishna imparted knowledge of the Self to Arjuna and convinced him that it was his duty to fight regardless of consequences. Afterwards Arjuna gave up his Moha, or delusion. All his doubts were cleared. He fought against the Kauravas and achieved victory.<ref name=":322" /> |
| − | ===The Puranas<ref name=": | + | ===The Puranas<ref name=":422">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 41-45</ref> === |
{{Main|Puranas}}The Puranas have five characteristics (Pancha-Lakshana) viz., history, cosmology (with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings and of Manvantaras. All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Samhitas. Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara. | {{Main|Puranas}}The Puranas have five characteristics (Pancha-Lakshana) viz., history, cosmology (with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings and of Manvantaras. All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Samhitas. Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara. | ||
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The Darsanas are not easy to understand. They are meant only for the learned few. Through Puranas, essential teachings are taught in a very easy and interesting way. Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas contain the history of remote times. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. They are very interesting to read and are full of information of all kinds. | The Darsanas are not easy to understand. They are meant only for the learned few. Through Puranas, essential teachings are taught in a very easy and interesting way. Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas contain the history of remote times. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. They are very interesting to read and are full of information of all kinds. | ||
| − | ====The Eighteen Puranas<ref name=": | + | ====The Eighteen Puranas<ref name=":422" /> ==== |
There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas. The main Puranas are:{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;| | There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas. The main Puranas are:{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;| | ||
* [[Vishnu Purana]] | * [[Vishnu Purana]] | ||
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The most renowned among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana. The most popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes Vishnu Purana. | The most renowned among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana. The most popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes Vishnu Purana. | ||
| − | Sanskrit literature can be classified under '''six orthodox heads''' and '''four other literary heads.''' The Orthodox heads form the authoritative scriptures of the Hindus. The four other literary heads embody the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.<ref name=": | + | Sanskrit literature can be classified under '''six orthodox heads''' and '''four other literary heads.''' The Orthodox heads form the authoritative scriptures of the Hindus. The four other literary heads embody the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.<ref name=":022" />The six scriptures are:[[Shruti (श्रुति)|Srutis,]] Smritis, Itihasas, Puranas, '''Agamas''' and Darsanas. The four other literary writings are: Subhashitas, Kavyas, Natakas, and Alankaras. |
===Agamas=== | ===Agamas=== | ||
| − | The Agamas are theological treatises and practical manuals of divine worship. The Agamas include the Tantras, Mantras and Yantras. These are treatises explaining the external worship of God, in idols, temples, etc. All the Agamas treat of (i) Jnana or Knowledge, (ii) Yoga or Concentration, (hi) Kriya or Esoteric Ritual and (iv) Charya or Exoteric Worship. They also give elaborate details about ontology and cosmology, liberation, devotion, meditation, philosophy of Mantras, mystic diagrams, charms and spells, temple-building, image-making, domestic observances, social rules, public festivals, etc.<ref name=": | + | The Agamas are theological treatises and practical manuals of divine worship. The Agamas include the Tantras, Mantras and Yantras. These are treatises explaining the external worship of God, in idols, temples, etc. All the Agamas treat of (i) Jnana or Knowledge, (ii) Yoga or Concentration, (hi) Kriya or Esoteric Ritual and (iv) Charya or Exoteric Worship. They also give elaborate details about ontology and cosmology, liberation, devotion, meditation, philosophy of Mantras, mystic diagrams, charms and spells, temple-building, image-making, domestic observances, social rules, public festivals, etc.<ref name=":522">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 45-47</ref> |
| − | ====Detailed Description<ref name=": | + | ====Detailed Description<ref name=":522" /> ==== |
The Agamas are divided into three sections: The Vaishnava, the Saiva and the Sakta. The three chief sects of Hinduism, viz., Vaishnavism, Saivism and Saktism, base their doctrines and dogmas on their respective Agamas. The Vaishnava Agamas or Pancharatra Agamas glorify God as Vishnu. The Saiva Agamas glorify God as Siva and have given rise to an important school of philosophy known as Saiva-Siddhanta, which prevails in South India, particularly in the districts of Tirunelveli and Madurai. The Sakta Agamas or Tantras glorify God as the Mother of the Universe, under one of the many names of Devi. '''The Agamas do not derive their authority from the Vedas, but are not antagonistic to them'''. They are all Vedic in spirit and character. That is the reason why they are regarded as authoritative. | The Agamas are divided into three sections: The Vaishnava, the Saiva and the Sakta. The three chief sects of Hinduism, viz., Vaishnavism, Saivism and Saktism, base their doctrines and dogmas on their respective Agamas. The Vaishnava Agamas or Pancharatra Agamas glorify God as Vishnu. The Saiva Agamas glorify God as Siva and have given rise to an important school of philosophy known as Saiva-Siddhanta, which prevails in South India, particularly in the districts of Tirunelveli and Madurai. The Sakta Agamas or Tantras glorify God as the Mother of the Universe, under one of the many names of Devi. '''The Agamas do not derive their authority from the Vedas, but are not antagonistic to them'''. They are all Vedic in spirit and character. That is the reason why they are regarded as authoritative. | ||
The Agamas teach several occult practices some of which confer powers, while the others bestow knowledge and freedom. Sakti is the creative power of Lord Siva. Among the existing books on the Agamas, the most famous are the Isvara-Samhita, Ahirbudhnya-Samhita, Sanatkumara-Samhita, Narada-Pancharatra, Spanda-Pradipika and the Mahanirvana-Tantra. | The Agamas teach several occult practices some of which confer powers, while the others bestow knowledge and freedom. Sakti is the creative power of Lord Siva. Among the existing books on the Agamas, the most famous are the Isvara-Samhita, Ahirbudhnya-Samhita, Sanatkumara-Samhita, Narada-Pancharatra, Spanda-Pradipika and the Mahanirvana-Tantra. | ||
| − | ====The Vaishnava Agamas<ref name=": | + | ====The Vaishnava Agamas<ref name=":522" /> ==== |
The Vaishnava Agamas are of four kind: | The Vaishnava Agamas are of four kind: | ||
#Vaikhanasa | #Vaikhanasa | ||
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There are two hundred and fifteen of these Vaishnava texts. Isvara, Ahirbudhnya, Paushkara, Parama, Sattvata, Brihad-Brahma and Jnanamritasara Samhitas are the important ones. | There are two hundred and fifteen of these Vaishnava texts. Isvara, Ahirbudhnya, Paushkara, Parama, Sattvata, Brihad-Brahma and Jnanamritasara Samhitas are the important ones. | ||
| − | ====The Saiva Agamas<ref name=": | + | ====The Saiva Agamas<ref name=":522" /> ==== |
The Saivas recognise twenty-eight Agamas, of which the chief is Karnika. The Agamas are also the basis of Kashmir Saivism which is called the Pratyabhijna system. The latter works of Pratyabhijna system show a distinct leaning to Advaitism. The Southern Saivism, i.e., Saiva Siddhanta and the Kashmir Saivism, regard these Agarnas as their authority, besides the Vedas. Each Agarna has Upa-Agamas. Of these, only fragmentarY. texts of twenty are extant. Lord Siva is the central God in. the Saiva Agamas. They are suitable to this age, Kali Yuga. They are open to all castes and both the sexes. | The Saivas recognise twenty-eight Agamas, of which the chief is Karnika. The Agamas are also the basis of Kashmir Saivism which is called the Pratyabhijna system. The latter works of Pratyabhijna system show a distinct leaning to Advaitism. The Southern Saivism, i.e., Saiva Siddhanta and the Kashmir Saivism, regard these Agarnas as their authority, besides the Vedas. Each Agarna has Upa-Agamas. Of these, only fragmentarY. texts of twenty are extant. Lord Siva is the central God in. the Saiva Agamas. They are suitable to this age, Kali Yuga. They are open to all castes and both the sexes. | ||
| − | ====The Sakta Agamas<ref name=": | + | ====The Sakta Agamas<ref name=":522" /> ==== |
There is another group of scriptures known as the '''Tantras'''. They belong to the Sakta cult. They glorify Sakti as the World-Mother. They dwell on the Sakti (energy) aspect of God and prescribe numerous courses of ritualistic worship of the Divine Mother in various forms. There are seventy-seven Agamas. These are very much like the Puranas in some respects. The texts are usually in the form of dialogues between Siva and Parvati. In some of these, Siva answers the questions put by Parvati, and in others, Parvati answers, Siva questioning. Mahanirvana, Kularnava, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja, Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala, Vishnu-Yamala and Todala Tantra are the important works. | There is another group of scriptures known as the '''Tantras'''. They belong to the Sakta cult. They glorify Sakti as the World-Mother. They dwell on the Sakti (energy) aspect of God and prescribe numerous courses of ritualistic worship of the Divine Mother in various forms. There are seventy-seven Agamas. These are very much like the Puranas in some respects. The texts are usually in the form of dialogues between Siva and Parvati. In some of these, Siva answers the questions put by Parvati, and in others, Parvati answers, Siva questioning. Mahanirvana, Kularnava, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja, Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala, Vishnu-Yamala and Todala Tantra are the important works. | ||
===Darsanas=== | ===Darsanas=== | ||
These consist of Sutras, Bhashya, Vritti, Varttika, Vyakhyana and Tippani. | These consist of Sutras, Bhashya, Vritti, Varttika, Vyakhyana and Tippani. | ||
====Sutras==== | ====Sutras==== | ||
| − | A '''[[sutra]]''' (''sūtra'' {{lang|sa|[[wikt:सूत्र|सूत्र]]}}) is a Sanskrit word that means "string, thread".<ref name=" | + | A '''[[sutra]]''' (''sūtra'' {{lang|sa|[[wikt:सूत्र|सूत्र]]}}) is a Sanskrit word that means "string, thread".<ref name="monierwilliamssutra22">Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1200/mw__1274.html ''sutra''], page 1241</ref> Each ''sutra'' is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra22" /><ref name="winternitz24922">M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 249</ref> |
| − | Sanatana Dharma has six systems or six different schools of thought called the [[Shad Darshanas|Shad Darsanas]]. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e., the one great Rishi who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras. The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. There are glosses, notes and, later, commentaries on the original commentaries.<ref name=": | + | Sanatana Dharma has six systems or six different schools of thought called the [[Shad Darshanas|Shad Darsanas]]. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e., the one great Rishi who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras. The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. There are glosses, notes and, later, commentaries on the original commentaries.<ref name=":622">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-50</ref> |
| − | Apart from philosophy, various fields of arts, law and social ethics developed respective ''sutras'', which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next. Each set of '''Sutras''' has got its [[Bhashya]], ''Vritti, Vaartika, Vyakhyana or Tika and Tippani''.<ref name=": | + | Apart from philosophy, various fields of arts, law and social ethics developed respective ''sutras'', which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next. Each set of '''Sutras''' has got its [[Bhashya]], ''Vritti, Vaartika, Vyakhyana or Tika and Tippani''.<ref name=":622" /> |
| − | A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number of letters, without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all meanings, without any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature.<ref name=": | + | A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number of letters, without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all meanings, without any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature.<ref name=":622" /> |
| − | The best example of the greatest, the tersest and the most perfect of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi composed by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from whom all others seem to have borrowed the method of composition. The Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of knowledge in short assertions suitable to be kept in memory at all times. The six Vedangas and the six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature of the world.<ref name=": | + | The best example of the greatest, the tersest and the most perfect of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi composed by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from whom all others seem to have borrowed the method of composition. The Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of knowledge in short assertions suitable to be kept in memory at all times. The six Vedangas and the six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature of the world.<ref name=":622" /> |
| − | In addition to these, there are later compositions like the Narada-Bhakti Sutras, the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras.<ref name=": | + | In addition to these, there are later compositions like the Narada-Bhakti Sutras, the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras.<ref name=":622" /> |
| − | ====Bhashya<ref name=": | + | ====Bhashya<ref name=":622" /> ==== |
'''सूत्रार्थो वर्ण्यते यत्र, पदै: सुत्रानुसारिभिः।''' | '''सूत्रार्थो वर्ण्यते यत्र, पदै: सुत्रानुसारिभिः।''' | ||
'''स्वपदानि च वर्ण्यन्ते, भाष्यं भाष्यविदो विदु: ॥''' | '''स्वपदानि च वर्ण्यन्ते, भाष्यं भाष्यविदो विदु: ॥''' | ||
| − | A [[Bhashya]] (Sanskrit: भाष्य) is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara.<ref name=": | + | A [[Bhashya]] (Sanskrit: भाष्य) is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara.<ref name=":022" /> |
| − | The best and the exemplary Bhashya in Sanskrit literature is the one written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini. This Bhashya is so important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and its celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali is the father of Bhashyakaras. The next important Bhashya is the one on the Mimamsa Sutras written by Sabara-Swamin who learnt the art from Patanjali's commentary. The third important Bhashya was written by Sankara on the Brahma Sutras, in close following with Sabara-Bhashya. The Bhashyas on the six sets of aphorisms dealing with Indian philosophy were written by Vatsyayana, Prasastapada, Vijnanabhikshu, Vyasa, Sabara and Sankara. On the Vedanta or Brahma sutra there are about sixteen Bhashyas, like those of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, Nimbarka, etc.<ref name=": | + | The best and the exemplary Bhashya in Sanskrit literature is the one written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini. This Bhashya is so important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and its celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali is the father of Bhashyakaras. The next important Bhashya is the one on the Mimamsa Sutras written by Sabara-Swamin who learnt the art from Patanjali's commentary. The third important Bhashya was written by Sankara on the Brahma Sutras, in close following with Sabara-Bhashya. The Bhashyas on the six sets of aphorisms dealing with Indian philosophy were written by Vatsyayana, Prasastapada, Vijnanabhikshu, Vyasa, Sabara and Sankara. On the Vedanta or Brahma sutra there are about sixteen Bhashyas, like those of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, Nimbarka, etc.<ref name=":022" /> |
| − | ====Vritti<ref name=": | + | ====Vritti<ref name=":622" /> ==== |
A Vritti is a short gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as extensively as a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana's Vritti on the Brahma Sutras. | A Vritti is a short gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as extensively as a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana's Vritti on the Brahma Sutras. | ||
| − | ====Varttika<ref name=": | + | ====Varttika<ref name=":622" /> ==== |
A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is said and also of that which is left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya. It also includes ways of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein. Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini's Sutras, of Suresvara on Sankara's Upanishad-Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta on the Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa. | A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is said and also of that which is left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya. It also includes ways of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein. Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini's Sutras, of Suresvara on Sankara's Upanishad-Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta on the Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa. | ||
| − | ====Vyakhyana or Tika<ref name=": | + | ====Vyakhyana or Tika<ref name=":622" /> ==== |
A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit Sahitya Sastra. An Anu-Vyakhyana—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An Anuvada is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. Tika is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankara's Brahmasutra-Bhashya. | A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit Sahitya Sastra. An Anu-Vyakhyana—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An Anuvada is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. Tika is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankara's Brahmasutra-Bhashya. | ||
| − | ====Tippani<ref name=": | + | ====Tippani<ref name=":722">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 51-53</ref> ==== |
Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the original. Examples are Kaiyata's gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Nagojibhatta's gloss on Kaiyata's gloss, or Appayya's gloss on Amalananda's gloss on the Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra. | Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the original. Examples are Kaiyata's gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Nagojibhatta's gloss on Kaiyata's gloss, or Appayya's gloss on Amalananda's gloss on the Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra. | ||
| − | ===Other Scriptures<ref name=": | + | ===Other Scriptures<ref name=":722" /> === |
The Tevaram and the Tiruvachakam which are the hymns of the Saiva saints of South India, the Divya-Prabandham of the Alvar saints of South India, the songs of Kabir, the Abhangas of Tukaram and the Ramayana of Tulasi Das—all of which are the outpourings of great realised souls—are wonderful scriptures. They contain the essence of the Vedas. | The Tevaram and the Tiruvachakam which are the hymns of the Saiva saints of South India, the Divya-Prabandham of the Alvar saints of South India, the songs of Kabir, the Abhangas of Tukaram and the Ramayana of Tulasi Das—all of which are the outpourings of great realised souls—are wonderful scriptures. They contain the essence of the Vedas. | ||
==Secular Writings== | ==Secular Writings== | ||
| − | These writings consist of the following<ref name=": | + | These writings consist of the following<ref name=":722" />: |
===The Subhashitas=== | ===The Subhashitas=== | ||
The Subhashitas are wise sayings, instructions and stories, either in poetry or in prose. Examples are Bhartrihari's three centuries of verses, the Subhashita-Ratna-Bhandagara and Somadeva Bhatta's Katha-Sarit-Sagara or Kshemendra's Brihat-Katha-Manjari. The Panchatantra and the Hitopadesa also belong to this category. | The Subhashitas are wise sayings, instructions and stories, either in poetry or in prose. Examples are Bhartrihari's three centuries of verses, the Subhashita-Ratna-Bhandagara and Somadeva Bhatta's Katha-Sarit-Sagara or Kshemendra's Brihat-Katha-Manjari. The Panchatantra and the Hitopadesa also belong to this category. | ||
Revision as of 14:26, 15 September 2018
Bharatiya Samskrtika Parampara (Samskrit : भारतीयसांस्कृतिकपरम्परा) or Indian Traditional Literary series of works include the major component of Bharatiya texts coming from Samskrit literature. Samskrit literature can be classified under two headings viz., Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya consisting of ancient literature and Laukika Sahitya including the more recent classical samskrit works. The Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya is a collection of the authoritative texts of Sanatana Dharma, while Laukika Sahitya embody the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.[1]
Vedas and Vaidika Sahitya
The texts under this heading are:[1][2][3]
- Srutis also called Amnaya and Trayi (Vedas, Vedabhashyas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads example : Rig veda, Yajus samhita)
- Smritis (Vaidika Vangmaya such as Vedangas, Smritis or Dharmashastras, Puranas, )
- Agamas (Example : Shaiva and Vaishnava Agamas)
- Darsanas (Astika Darshanas, example : Nyaya darshana)[1]
Laukika Sahitya
The classical literary writings include different types of writings classified variously :[1]
- Mahakavyas (Poetry, example : Kalidasa Mahakavi's Raghuvamsha)
- Rupakas or Natakas (Drama, example : Mricchakatika, Pratimanataka)
- Alankara shastragranthas (Example : Kavyaprakasha, Dhvanyaloka)
- Gadya kavyas (Prose, example : Kadambari)
- Charitraka kavyas (Historical presentations, example : Rajatarangini)
- Champu kavyas (Mix of prose and poetry, example : Champu Ramayana)
- Katha kavyas (Stories, example : Brhatkatha, Kathasaritsagara)
- Nitikavyas (Didactic poetry, example : Panchatantra and Hitopadesha)
In the DharmaWiki portal, articles pertaining to the Vedas and Vaidika Vangmaya are discussed while information pertaining to Laukika Sahitya is outside the scope of this project.
Vedas and Vaidika Vangmaya
The Shrutis
The Vaidika texts were memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, hence preserved over thousands of years. There are two classifications of Hindu texts: Shruti – that which is heard, and Smriti – that which is remembered.
The Srutis are called the Vedas. The Hindus have received the Vedas through revelation. Vedas are considered to be apauruṣeya, or entirely superhuman, without any author.[4] The Vedas are the foundational scriptures of the Hindus.[4]
There are four Vedas:
The Yajur Veda is again divided into two parts- The Sukla and the Krishna. The Krishna or the Taittirya is the older book and the Sukla or the Vajasaneya is a later revelation to sage Yajnavalkya from Surya.[4] The Rig-Veda is divided into twenty one sections, the Yajur Veda into one hundred and nine sections, the Sama Veda into one thousand sections and the Atharva Veda into fifty sections. In all, the Veda is thus divided into one thousand one hundred and eighty recensions.
Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types[4]:
- The Samhitas that comprise of mantras and benedictions.
- The Brahmanas that contain explanation of Mantras and rituals
- The Aranyakas that are mystical texts which give philosophical interpretation of the rituals. These are intended for the Vanaprasthas or hermits, who prepare themselves for taking Sanyasa
- The Upanishads that discuss meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge.
Another way of identifying components of Veda[5]
The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda (कर्म खण्ड), Upasana-Kanda (उपासना खण्ड) and Jnana-Kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड). The Karma-Kanda or ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or worship-section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or knowledge-section deals with the knowledge of Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads Jnana-Kanda.
Main components of Srutis are as follows:
The Samhitas[6]
The Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest book of the Hindus. Its priest is called the Hotri. The Yajur-Veda Samhita is mostly in prose and is meant to be used by the Adhvaryu, the Yajur-Vedic priest for explanations of the rites, supplementing the Rig-Vedic Mantras. The Sama-Veda Samhita is mostly borrowed from Rig-Vedic Samhita and is meant to be sung by the Udgatri, the Sania-Vedic priest. the Atharva-Veda Samhita is meant to be used by the Brahma, the Atharva-Vedic priest, to correct the mispronunciations and wrong performances that may accidentally be committed by the other three priests.
The Brahmanas and the Aranyakas[6]
There are two Brahmanas to the Rig-Veda —the Aitareya and the Sankhayana. The Shatapath Brahmana belongs to the Sukla Yajur-Veda. The Krishna Yajur-Veda has the Taittiriya and the Maitrayana Brahmanas. The Tandya or Panchavimsa, the Shadvimsa, the Chhandogya, the Adbhuta, the Arsheya and the Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the Sama Veda. The Brahmana of the Atharva-Veda is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an Aranyaka.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas. The teaching based on them is called Vedanta. The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads,Template:Sfn[7] and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[7] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[8][9] Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[10][8]
There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches or recensions, i.e., 21, 109, 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas, the Rig-Veda the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva-Veda.[6]
The different philosophers of India belonging to different schools, such as Monism, Qualified Monism, Dualism, Pure Monism, Difference-cum-non-difference, etc., have acknowledged the supreme authority of the Upanishads. They have given their own interpretations and they have built their philosophy on the foundation of the Upanishads.
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads.[11][12] The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and AranyakasTemplate:Sfn and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally. The most important Upanishads are Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara and Maitrayani.
Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the Sama Veda. The Brahmana of the Atharva-Veda is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an Aranyaka.
The Upa-Vedas
There are four Upa-Vedas or subsidiary Vedas, viz., the Ayurveda, the Dhanurveda, the Gandharva Veda and the Sthapatya Veda forming auxiliaries to the four Vedas[13]. Some scholers consider Artha Shastra as the fourth Upaveda instead of Sthapatya Veda.
The Upavedas supplement the Vedas with more specific applications of Vedic teachings into the cultural field.
| S. No. | Upaveda Name | Concerned with | Associated with Veda |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ayurveda | Science of Health and Life | Atharva Veda |
| 2 | Dhanurveda | Science of Warfare / Martial Arts | Rig Veda |
| 3 | Sthapatya Veda or Shilpa Veda | Science of Engineering and Architecture | Yajur Veda |
| 4 | Gandharva Veda | Music, poetry and dance | Sama Veda |
| 4* | Artha Shastra | Public administration, governance, economy and polity | Yajur Veda |
The Vedangas[14]
There are six Angas or explanatory limbs, to the Vedas: the Siksha and Vyakararna of Panini, the Chhandas of Pingalacharya, the Nirukta of Yaska, the Jyotisha of Garga, and the Kalpas (Srauta, Grihya, Dharma and Sulba) belonging to the authorship of various Rishis.
Siksha is a knowledge of phonetics. Shiksha deals with pronunciation and accent. The text of the Vedas is arranged in various forms or Pathas. The Pada-patha gives each word its separate form. The Krama-patha connects the word in pairs.
Vyakarana is Sanskrit grammar. Panini's books are most famous. Without knowledge of Vyakarana, one cannot understand the Vedas. Chhanda is metre dealing with prosody. Nirukta is philology or etymology. Jyotisha is astronomy and astrology. It deals with the movements of the heavenly bodies, planets, etc., and their influence in human affairs.
Kalpa is the method of ritual. The Srauta Sutras which explain the ritual of sacrifices belong to Kalpa. The Sulba Sutras, which deal with measurements which are necessary for laying out the sacrificial areas, also belong to Kalpa. The Grihya Sutras which concern domestic life, and the Dharma Sutras which deal with ethics, customs and laws, also belong to Kalpa. The Pratishakhyas, Padapathas, Kramapathas, Upalekhas, Anukramanis, Daivatsamhitas, Parishishtas, Prayogas, Paddhatis, Karikas, Khilas and Vyuhas are further elaborations in the rituals of the Kalpa Sutras.
Among the Kalpa Sutras, the Asvalayana, Sankhyana and the Sambhavya belong to the Rig-Veda. The Mashaka, Latyayana, Drahyayana, Gobhila and Khadira belong to the Sama-Veda. The Katyayana and Paraskara belong to the Sukla Yajur-Veda. The Apastamba, Hiranyakesi, Bodhayana, Bharadvaja, Manava, Vaikhanasa and the Kathaka belong to the Krishna Yajur-Veda. The Vaitana and the Kaushika belong to the Atharva-Veda.
The Smritis
Smritis are ancient law-codes dealing with the sanatana-Varnasrama-Dharma. They supplement and explain the ritualistic injunctions called Vidhis in the Vedas. The Smriti Sastra is based on the Sruti. The Smriti stands next in authority to the Sruti. It explains and develops Dharma. It lays down the laws which regulate (Hindu) national, social, family and individual obligations. The works which are expressly called Smritis are the law books, Dharma Sastras. The laws for regulating Hindu society from time to time are codified in the Smritis. The Smritis have laid down definite rules and laws to guide the individuals and communities in their daily conduct and to regulate their manners and customs. The Smritis have given detailed instructions, according to the conditions of the time, to all classes of men regarding their duties in life. The Hindu learns how one has to spend his whole life from these Smritis. The duties of Varnasrama and all ceremonies are clearly given in these books[15].
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the sages of different ages and different parts of India.[15]
The Celebrated Hindu Law Givers[15]
During course of history, a great lawgiver would take birth amd this person would codify the existing laws and remove those which had become obsolete. He/ she would make some alterations, adaptations, readjustments, additions and, subtractions, to suit the needs of the time and see that the way of living of the people would be in accordance with the teachings of the Veda.
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great sages. The Smritis are named after them. There is Manu Smriti or Manava Dharma-Sastra (the Laws of Manu or the Institutes of Manu), Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti. Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law. Even the Government of India are applying some of these laws. There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Sastras. The most important are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara. The other fifteen are those of Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka. The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.
Need for a New Law-Code[15]
It is not possible to follow some of the laws of Manu at the present time. We can follow their spirit and not the letter. As society advances, it outgrows certain laws which were valid and helpful at a particular stage of its growth. Our present society has considerably changed. A new Smriti to suit the requirements of this age is very necessary.
The Itihasas
There are four books under this heading[16]:
- Valmiki-Ramayana
- Yogavasishtha
- Mahabharata
- Harivamsa
These four books embody all that is in the Vedas, but only in a simpler manner. These are called the Suhrit-Samhitas or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are called the Prabhu-Samhitas or the Commanding Treatises with great authority.[16]
These works explain the great universal truths in the form of historical narratives, stories and dialogues. These are very interesting volumes and are liked by all, from the inquisitive child to the intellectual scholar. The Itihasas give us beautiful stories of absorbing interest and importance, through which all the fundamental teachings of Hinduism are impressed on one's mind. The laws of Smritis and the principles of the Vedas are stamped firmly on the minds of the Hindus through the noble and marvellous deeds of their great national heroes. We get a clear idea of Hinduism from these sublime stories. The common man cannot comprehend the high abstract philosophy of the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras. Hence, the compassionate sages Valmiki and Vyasa wrote the Itihasas for the benefit of common people. The same philosophy is presented with analogies and parables in a tasteful form to the common run of mankind.[16]
Ramayana and Mahabharata
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful Sastras of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us Clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilisation and culture, her manufactures etc.[16]
Ramayana
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand verses by Sri Valmiki.[16]
The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopaedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Lord Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand verses by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa.[16]
The Bhagavad-Gita
The most important part of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita. It is a marvellous dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield, before the commencement of the great war. Bhagavan Sri Krishna became the charioteer of Arjuna. Sri Krishna explained the essentials of Dharma to Arjuna. Just as the Upanishads contain the cream of the Vedas, so does the Gita contain the cream of the Upanishads. Arjuna saw his dear relatives and teachers, before him, in the battle-field. He fainted and refused to fight against them. Then Lord Krishna imparted knowledge of the Self to Arjuna and convinced him that it was his duty to fight regardless of consequences. Afterwards Arjuna gave up his Moha, or delusion. All his doubts were cleared. He fought against the Kauravas and achieved victory.[16]
The Puranas[17]
The Puranas have five characteristics (Pancha-Lakshana) viz., history, cosmology (with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings and of Manvantaras. All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Samhitas. Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara.
The Puranas were written to popularise the teachings of the Vedas. They contain the essence of the Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through concrete examples, stories, legends, lives of saints, kings and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events. The sages made use of these to illustrate the eternal principles of religion. The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand deep philosophy and who could not study the Vedas.
The Darsanas are not easy to understand. They are meant only for the learned few. Through Puranas, essential teachings are taught in a very easy and interesting way. Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas contain the history of remote times. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. They are very interesting to read and are full of information of all kinds.
The Eighteen Puranas[17]
There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas. The main Puranas are:
Of these, six are Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu. Six are Rajasic and glorify Brahma. Six are Tamasic and they glorify Siva.
The most renowned among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana. The most popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes Vishnu Purana.
Sanskrit literature can be classified under six orthodox heads and four other literary heads. The Orthodox heads form the authoritative scriptures of the Hindus. The four other literary heads embody the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.[4]The six scriptures are:Srutis, Smritis, Itihasas, Puranas, Agamas and Darsanas. The four other literary writings are: Subhashitas, Kavyas, Natakas, and Alankaras.
Agamas
The Agamas are theological treatises and practical manuals of divine worship. The Agamas include the Tantras, Mantras and Yantras. These are treatises explaining the external worship of God, in idols, temples, etc. All the Agamas treat of (i) Jnana or Knowledge, (ii) Yoga or Concentration, (hi) Kriya or Esoteric Ritual and (iv) Charya or Exoteric Worship. They also give elaborate details about ontology and cosmology, liberation, devotion, meditation, philosophy of Mantras, mystic diagrams, charms and spells, temple-building, image-making, domestic observances, social rules, public festivals, etc.[18]
Detailed Description[18]
The Agamas are divided into three sections: The Vaishnava, the Saiva and the Sakta. The three chief sects of Hinduism, viz., Vaishnavism, Saivism and Saktism, base their doctrines and dogmas on their respective Agamas. The Vaishnava Agamas or Pancharatra Agamas glorify God as Vishnu. The Saiva Agamas glorify God as Siva and have given rise to an important school of philosophy known as Saiva-Siddhanta, which prevails in South India, particularly in the districts of Tirunelveli and Madurai. The Sakta Agamas or Tantras glorify God as the Mother of the Universe, under one of the many names of Devi. The Agamas do not derive their authority from the Vedas, but are not antagonistic to them. They are all Vedic in spirit and character. That is the reason why they are regarded as authoritative.
The Agamas teach several occult practices some of which confer powers, while the others bestow knowledge and freedom. Sakti is the creative power of Lord Siva. Among the existing books on the Agamas, the most famous are the Isvara-Samhita, Ahirbudhnya-Samhita, Sanatkumara-Samhita, Narada-Pancharatra, Spanda-Pradipika and the Mahanirvana-Tantra.
The Vaishnava Agamas are of four kind:
- Vaikhanasa
- Pancharatra
- Pratishthasara
- Vijnana-lalita.
The Brahma, Saiva Kaumara, Vasishtha, Kapila, Gautamiya and the Naradiya section of the Santi-Parva of the Mahabharata is the earliest source of information about the Pancharatras.
Vishnu is the Supreme Lord in the Pancharatra Agamas. The Vaishnavas regard the Pancharatra Agamas to be the most authoritative. They believe that these Agamas were revealed by Lord Vishnu Himself. Narada-Pancharatra says: "Everything from Brahma to a blade of grass is Lord Krishna." This corresponds to the Upanishadic declaration: "All this is, verily, Brahman-Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma."
There are two hundred and fifteen of these Vaishnava texts. Isvara, Ahirbudhnya, Paushkara, Parama, Sattvata, Brihad-Brahma and Jnanamritasara Samhitas are the important ones.
The Saiva Agamas[18]
The Saivas recognise twenty-eight Agamas, of which the chief is Karnika. The Agamas are also the basis of Kashmir Saivism which is called the Pratyabhijna system. The latter works of Pratyabhijna system show a distinct leaning to Advaitism. The Southern Saivism, i.e., Saiva Siddhanta and the Kashmir Saivism, regard these Agarnas as their authority, besides the Vedas. Each Agarna has Upa-Agamas. Of these, only fragmentarY. texts of twenty are extant. Lord Siva is the central God in. the Saiva Agamas. They are suitable to this age, Kali Yuga. They are open to all castes and both the sexes.
The Sakta Agamas[18]
There is another group of scriptures known as the Tantras. They belong to the Sakta cult. They glorify Sakti as the World-Mother. They dwell on the Sakti (energy) aspect of God and prescribe numerous courses of ritualistic worship of the Divine Mother in various forms. There are seventy-seven Agamas. These are very much like the Puranas in some respects. The texts are usually in the form of dialogues between Siva and Parvati. In some of these, Siva answers the questions put by Parvati, and in others, Parvati answers, Siva questioning. Mahanirvana, Kularnava, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja, Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala, Vishnu-Yamala and Todala Tantra are the important works.
Darsanas
These consist of Sutras, Bhashya, Vritti, Varttika, Vyakhyana and Tippani.
Sutras
A sutra (sūtra सूत्र) is a Sanskrit word that means "string, thread".[19] Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven.[19][20]
Sanatana Dharma has six systems or six different schools of thought called the Shad Darsanas. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e., the one great Rishi who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras. The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. There are glosses, notes and, later, commentaries on the original commentaries.[21]
Apart from philosophy, various fields of arts, law and social ethics developed respective sutras, which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next. Each set of Sutras has got its Bhashya, Vritti, Vaartika, Vyakhyana or Tika and Tippani.[21]
A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number of letters, without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all meanings, without any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature.[21]
The best example of the greatest, the tersest and the most perfect of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi composed by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from whom all others seem to have borrowed the method of composition. The Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of knowledge in short assertions suitable to be kept in memory at all times. The six Vedangas and the six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature of the world.[21]
In addition to these, there are later compositions like the Narada-Bhakti Sutras, the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras.[21]
Bhashya[21]
सूत्रार्थो वर्ण्यते यत्र, पदै: सुत्रानुसारिभिः।
स्वपदानि च वर्ण्यन्ते, भाष्यं भाष्यविदो विदु: ॥
A Bhashya (Sanskrit: भाष्य) is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara.[4]
The best and the exemplary Bhashya in Sanskrit literature is the one written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini. This Bhashya is so important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and its celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali is the father of Bhashyakaras. The next important Bhashya is the one on the Mimamsa Sutras written by Sabara-Swamin who learnt the art from Patanjali's commentary. The third important Bhashya was written by Sankara on the Brahma Sutras, in close following with Sabara-Bhashya. The Bhashyas on the six sets of aphorisms dealing with Indian philosophy were written by Vatsyayana, Prasastapada, Vijnanabhikshu, Vyasa, Sabara and Sankara. On the Vedanta or Brahma sutra there are about sixteen Bhashyas, like those of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, Nimbarka, etc.[4]
Vritti[21]
A Vritti is a short gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as extensively as a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana's Vritti on the Brahma Sutras.
Varttika[21]
A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is said and also of that which is left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya. It also includes ways of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein. Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini's Sutras, of Suresvara on Sankara's Upanishad-Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta on the Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa.
Vyakhyana or Tika[21]
A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit Sahitya Sastra. An Anu-Vyakhyana—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An Anuvada is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. Tika is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankara's Brahmasutra-Bhashya.
Tippani[22]
Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the original. Examples are Kaiyata's gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Nagojibhatta's gloss on Kaiyata's gloss, or Appayya's gloss on Amalananda's gloss on the Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra.
Other Scriptures[22]
The Tevaram and the Tiruvachakam which are the hymns of the Saiva saints of South India, the Divya-Prabandham of the Alvar saints of South India, the songs of Kabir, the Abhangas of Tukaram and the Ramayana of Tulasi Das—all of which are the outpourings of great realised souls—are wonderful scriptures. They contain the essence of the Vedas.
Secular Writings
These writings consist of the following[22]:
The Subhashitas
The Subhashitas are wise sayings, instructions and stories, either in poetry or in prose. Examples are Bhartrihari's three centuries of verses, the Subhashita-Ratna-Bhandagara and Somadeva Bhatta's Katha-Sarit-Sagara or Kshemendra's Brihat-Katha-Manjari. The Panchatantra and the Hitopadesa also belong to this category.
The Kavyas
These are highly scholarly compositions in poetry, prose or both. The greatest of poetical Kavyas are those of Kalidas (The Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhav), Bharavi (The Kiratarjuniya), Magha (The Sisupalavadha), Sri Harsha (The Naishadha). The best prose Kavyas in the whole of Sanskrit literature were written by Bhattabana (The Kadambari and Harshacharita). Among those containing both poetry and prose, the Champu-Ramayana and the Champu-Bharata are most famous.
The Natakas
These are marvellously scholastic dramas embodying the Rasas of Sringara, Vira, Karuna, Adbhuta, Hasya, Bhayanaka, Vibhatsa and Raudra. The best dramas are written by Kalidasa (Sakuntala), Bhavabhuti (Uttara Rama-Charit), and Visakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa).
The Alankaras
The Alankaras are the grand rhetorical texts, that highlight the science of perfection and beauty of ornamental language, and of effective composition with elegance and force, both in poetry and in prose. These are the fundamentals of Sanskrit Sahitya, even superior to the Kavyas and the Natakas. The best Alankara-Granthas are those of Mammata (Kavyaprakasa) and Jagannatha (Rasagangudhara).
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach) Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University
- ↑ Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) Paaramaathika Padakosam Hyderabad: Msko Books
- ↑ Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop in Vedic Heritage Portal.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 28
- ↑ Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 31
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism, Page 32
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
- ↑ Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210
- ↑ Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
- ↑ Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1
- ↑ E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299
- ↑ All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 33
- ↑ All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 33-34
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 35-37
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 Swami Sivananda, All About HInduism, Page 38-41
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 41-45
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 45-47
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for sutra, page 1241
- ↑ M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 249
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-50
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 51-53