Difference between revisions of "Sutras (सूत्राणि)"

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A '''sutra''' ([[IAST]]: ''sūtra'') is an [[aphorism]] or other teaching that is part of the ancient religious traditions originating in [[South Asia]], particularly [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref>{{cite dictionary | title=sutra | dictionary=Dictionary.com | url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/sutra?s=t | accessdate=November 8, 2017}}</ref><ref name="monierwilliamssutra">[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1200/mw__1274.html Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry for ''sutra'', page 1241]</ref><ref name=winternitz249/> The term ''sutra'' can broadly refer to a single [[aphorism]], a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or even a condensed manual or text.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra"/> Sutras are considered a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts.<ref name=winternitz249/>
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[[File:A Sanskrit manuscript of Lotus Sutra in South Turkestan Brahmi script.jpg|thumb|360px|A [[Sanskrit]] manuscript page of [[Lotus Sutra]] (Buddhism) from South Turkestan in [[Brahmi script]].]]
 
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[[File:Kalpa sutra-Jina's mother dreams c1465.jpg|thumb|360px|A manuscript page from Kalpa Sutra (Jainism)]]
 
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A '''sutra''' ([[IAST]]: ''sūtra'' {{lang|sa|[[wikt:सूत्र|सूत्र]]}}) is a Sanskrit word that means "string, thread".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra>Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1200/mw__1274.html ''sutra''], page 1241</ref> In Indian literary traditions, it also refers to an [[aphorism]] or a collection of [[aphorisms]] in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a condensed manual or text.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/> ''sutras'' are a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts found in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref name=winternitz249/>
 
  
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In Hinduism, ''sutra'' denotes a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short [[aphorism|aphoristic]] statements.<ref name=winternitz249/><ref name=gavinfloodaith54>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 54-55</ref> Each ''sutra'' is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/> The oldest sutras of Hinduism are found in the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layers of the [[Vedas]].<ref name=maxmullerhas108/><ref name=winternitz252/> Every school of [[Hindu philosophy]], Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law and social ethics developed respective ''sutras'', which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.<ref name=gavinfloodaith54/><ref name=maxmullerhas74/><ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0691143774|pages=194–195}}</ref>
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In [[Hinduism]], sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short [[aphorism|aphoristic]] statements.<ref name=winternitz249/><ref name=gavinfloodaith54>Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-43878-0}}, pages 54–55</ref> Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra"/><ref name="winternitz249"/> The oldest sutras of Hinduism are found in the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layers of the [[Vedas]].<ref name="maxmullerhas108"/><ref name="winternitz252"/> Every school of [[Hindu philosophy]], Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.<ref name="gavinfloodaith54"/><ref name="maxmullerhas74"/><ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-14377-4|pages=194–195}}</ref>
  
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In Buddhism, sutra or sutta refers mostly to [[Buddhist texts#canonical texts|canonical scriptures]], many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Pali form of the word, sutta, is used exclusively to refer to the scriptures of the early [[Pali Canon]], the only texts recognized by [[Theravada]] Buddhism as canonical.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
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In Buddhism, sutras, also known as ''suttas'', are [[Buddhist texts#canonical texts|canonical scriptures]], many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Pali form of the word, ''sutta'', is used exclusively to refer to the scriptures of the early [[Pali Canon]], the only texts recognized by [[Theravada]] Buddhism as canonical.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
  
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In [[Jainism]], sutra or suya refers to canonical sermons of [[Mahavira]] contained in the [[Jain Agamas]] and to some later (post-canonical) normative texts.<ref name=kelting111/><ref name=jainigasjd32/>
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In Jainism, sutras also known as ''suyas'' are canonical sermons of [[Mahavira]] contained in the [[Jain Agamas]] as well as some later (post-canonical) normative texts.<ref name="kelting111"/><ref name="jainigasjd32"/>
  
 
==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
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[[File:Birch bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691.jpg|thumb|240px|A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of ancient Panini Sutra, a treatise on grammar,<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/150/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 150-152</ref> found in Kashmir.]]
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[[File:Birch bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691.jpg|thumb|240px|A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of ancient Panini Sutra, a treatise on grammar,<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/150/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 150–152</ref> found in Kashmir.]]
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The word ''sutra'' ([[Sanskrit]]: सूत्र, [[Pali]]: ''sutta'', [[Ardha Magadhi]]: ''sūya'') means "string, thread".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249>M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 249</ref> The root of the word is ''siv'', that which sews and holds things together.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref>{{cite book|last=MacGregor|first=Geddes|title=Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy|year=1989|publisher=Paragon House|location=New York|isbn=1557780196|edition=1st}}</ref> The word is related to ''suci'' (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+suci&trans=Translate&direction=AU suci] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> and ''suna'' (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/>
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The word ''sūtra'' ([[Sanskrit]]: सूत्र, [[Pali]]: ''sūtta'', [[Ardha Magadhi]]: ''sūya'') means "string, thread".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249>M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pages 249</ref> The root of the word is ''siv'', that which sews and holds things together.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref>{{cite book|last=MacGregor|first=Geddes|title=Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy|year=1989|publisher=Paragon House|location=New York|isbn=1-55778-019-6|edition=1st}}</ref> The word is related to ''sūci'' (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+suci&trans=Translate&direction=AU suci] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> and ''sūnā'' (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/>
  
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In the context of literature, ''sutra'' means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/>
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In the context of literature, ''sūtra'' means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/>
  
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A ''sutra'' is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words".<ref name=winternitz249/> A collection of ''sutras'' becomes a text, and this is also called ''sutra'' (often capitalized in Western literature).<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/>
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A ''sūtra'' is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words".<ref name=winternitz249/> A collection of ''sūtras'' becomes a text, and this is also called ''sūtra'' (often capitalized in Western literature).<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/>
  
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A ''sutra'' is different from other components such as ''Shlokas'', ''Anuvyakhayas'' and ''Vyakhyas'' found in ancient Indian literature.<ref name=maxmullerhasl110/> A ''sutra'' is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message,<ref>{{cite book|author=Irving L. Finkel |title=Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B20NAQAAMAAJ |year=2007|publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=978-0-7141-1153-7 |pages=203 }}</ref> while a ''[[Shloka]]'' is a verse that conveys the complete message and is designed to certain rules of musical meter,<ref>{{cite book|author= Kale Pramod |title=The Theatric Universe: (a Study of the Natyasastra) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yRdNBKIHnjkC |year=1974|publisher=Popular|isbn=978-81-7154-118-8 |pages=8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lewis Rowell |title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-73034-9 |pages=135 }}</ref> a ''Anuvyakhaya'' is an explanation of the reviewed text, while a ''Vyakhya'' is a comment by the reviewer.<ref name=maxmullerhasl110>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/110/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 110-111</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&tinput=vyakhya&trans=Translate व्याख्या], Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref>
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A ''sūtra'' is different from other components such as ''Shlokas'', ''Anuvyakhayas'' and ''Vyakhyas'' found in ancient Indian literature.<ref name=maxmullerhasl110/> A ''sūtra'' is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message,<ref>{{cite book|author=Irving L. Finkel |title=Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B20NAQAAMAAJ |year=2007|publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=978-0-7141-1153-7 |page=203 }}</ref> while a ''[[Shloka]]'' is a verse that conveys the complete message and is structured to certain rules of musical meter,<ref>{{cite book|author= Kale Pramod |title=The Theatric Universe: (a Study of the Natyasastra) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yRdNBKIHnjkC |year=1974|publisher=Popular|isbn=978-81-7154-118-8 |page=8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lewis Rowell |title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-73034-9 |page=135 }}</ref> a ''Anuvyakhaya'' is an explanation of the reviewed text, while a ''Vyakhya'' is a comment by the reviewer.<ref name=maxmullerhasl110>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/110/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 110–111</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&tinput=vyakhya&trans=Translate व्याख्या], Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref>
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==History==
 
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{| class="wikitable floatright" align=center style = " background: transparent; "  |+ Sutra known from Vedic era<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/198/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 199</ref>
 
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|-style="text-align: center;"  | width=80px style="background: #ffad66;" | Veda
 
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  | width= 300px | Sutras
 
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|-style="text-align: left;"  | width=80px | [[Rigveda]]
 
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  | width= 300px | Asvalayana Sutra (§), Sankhayana Sutra (§), Saunaka Sutra (¶)
 
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|-style="text-align: left;"  | width=80px | [[Samaveda]]
 
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  | width= 300px | Latyayana Sutra (§), Drahyayana Sutra (§), Nidana Sutra (§), Pushpa Sutra (§), Anustotra Sutra (§)<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/210/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 210</ref>
 
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|-style="text-align: left;"  | width=80px | [[Yajurveda]]
 
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  | width= 320px | Manava Sutra (§), Bharadvaja Sutra (¶), Vadhuna Sutra (¶), Vaikhanasa Sutra (¶), Laugakshi Sutra (¶), Maitra Sutra (¶), Katha Sutra (¶), Varaha Sutra (¶)
 
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|-style="text-align: left;"  | width=80px | [[Atharvaveda]]
 
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  | width= 320px | Kusika Sutra (§)
 
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|-style="text-align: center;"  |colspan="2" |¶: only quotes survive; §: text survives
 
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|}
 
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Sutras first appear in the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layer of Vedic literature.<ref name=winternitz252>M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 251-253</ref> They grow in the Vedangas, such as the Shrauta Sutras and Kalpa Sutras.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/> These were designed so that they can be easily communicated from a teacher to student, memorized by the recipient for discussion or self-study or as reference.<ref name=winternitz249/>
 
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A sutra by itself is condensed shorthand, and the threads of syllable are difficult to decipher or understand, without associated scholarly [[Bhasya]] or deciphering commentary that fills in the "[[Warp and woof|woof]]".<ref>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, ISBN 978-1519117786, page 26</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/x8771j1117448987/ |author1=Tubb, Gary A. |author2=Emery B. Boose |title=Scholastic Sanskrit, A Manual for Students |publisher=Springerlink.com |date= |accessdate=2013-03-16}}</ref>
 
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The oldest manuscripts that have survived into the modern era, that contain extensive sutras, are part of the [[Vedas]] dated to be from the late 2nd millennium BCE through mid 1st-millennium BCE.<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/314/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 314-319</ref> The [[Aitareya Aranyaka]] for example, states Winternitz, is primarily a collection of ''sutras''.<ref name=winternitz252/> Their use and ancient roots are attested by sutras being mentioned in larger genre of ancient non-Vedic Hindu literature called ''Gatha'', ''Narashansi'', ''Itihasa'' and ''Akhyana'' (songs, legends, epics and stories).<ref name=mullersutras40>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/40/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 40-45, 71-77</ref>
 
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In the history of Indian literature, large compilations of sutras, in diverse fields of knowledge, have been traced to the period from 600 BCE to 200 BCE (mostly after Buddha and Mahavira), and this has been called the "sutras period".<ref name=mullersutras40/><ref>Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195644418, page 206</ref> This period followed the more ancient ''Chhandas period'', ''Mantra period'' and ''Brahmana period''.<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/70/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 70</ref>
 
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{{pull quote|
 
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(The ancient) Indian pupil learnt these '''sutras''' of grammar, philosophy or theology by the same mechanical method which fixes in our (modern era) minds the alphabet and the multiplication table.
 
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|author=[[Max Muller]]|source=History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature<ref name=maxmullerhas74>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/74/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 74</ref>|width=72%}}
 
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==Hinduism==
 
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{{further|Hindu texts}}
 
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{{Hinduism}}
 
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Some of the earliest surviving specimen of ''sutras'' of Hinduism are found in ''Anupada Sutras'' and ''Nidana Sutras'',<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 108</ref> the former distills the [[epistemology|epistemic]] debate whether Sruti or [[Smriti]] or neither must be considered more reliable source of knowledge,<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/100/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 101-108</ref> while the latter distills the rules of musical meters for [[Samaveda]] chants and songs.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/146/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 147</ref>
 
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A larger collection of ancient sutra literature in Hinduism corresponds to the six Vedangas, or six limbs of the [[Vedas]].<ref name=maxmullerhas108/> These are six subjects that were called in the Vedas as necessary for complete mastery of the Vedas. The six subjects with their own ''sutras'' were "pronunciation ([[Siksha|Shiksha]]), meter ([[Chandas]]), grammar ([[Vyakarana]]), explanation of words ([[Nirukta]]), time keeping through astronomy ([[Jyotisha]]) and ceremonial rituals (Kalpa).<ref name=maxmullerhas108/> The first two, states Max Muller, were considered in the Vedic era to be necessary for reading the Veda, the second two for understanding it, and the last two for deploying the Vedic knowledge at [[yajna]]s (fire rituals).<ref name=maxmullerhas108>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 108-113</ref> The ''sutras'' corresponding to these are embedded inside the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layers of the Vedas. Taittiriya Aranyaka, for example in Book 7, embeds sutras for accurate pronunciation after the terse phrases "On Letters", "On Accents", "On Quantity", "On Delivery" and "On Euphonic Laws".<ref name=maxmullerhas113>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 113-115</ref>
 
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The fourth and often the last layer of philosophical, speculative text in the Vedas, the Upanishads, too have embedded sutras such as those found in the [[Taittiriya Upanishad]].<ref name=maxmullerhas113/>
 
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The compendium of ancient Vedic sutra literature that has survived, in full or fragments, includes the [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa Sutras]], [[Smarta Sutras]], [[Srauta Sutras]], [[Dharma Sutras]], [[Grhya Sutras]] and [[Sulba Sutras]].<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 108-145</ref> Other fields for which ancient sutras are known include etymology, phonetics and grammar.
 
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===Post-vedic sutras===
 
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{{Quote box |width=20em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right
 
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|quote='''Example of sutras from [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]]'''<br>
 
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<poem>
 
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अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा ॥१.१.१॥
 
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जन्माद्यस्य यतः ॥ १.१.२॥
 
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शास्त्रयोनित्वात् ॥ १.१.३॥
 
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तत्तुसमन्वयात् ॥ १.१.४॥
 
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ईक्षतेर्नाशब्दम् ॥ १.१.५॥
 
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</poem>
 
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|source =— Brahma Sutra 1.1.1-1.1.5<ref>{{cite book  | last = Radhakrishna  | first =  Sarvepalli  | authorlink = Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan  | title = Brahma Sutra, The Philosophy of Spiritual Life  | url = https://archive.org/stream/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life/Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life#page/n225/mode/2up  | year = 1960  | pages = 227–232}}<br>George Adams (1993), The Structure and Meaning of Bādarāyaṇa's Brahma Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120809314, page 38</ref><ref>'''Original Sanskrit:''' [https://archive.org/stream/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf/Brahma.Sutra.Bhashya.By.Adi.Shankaracharya.Sanskrit#page/n0/mode/2up Brahma sutra Bhasya] Adi Shankara, [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/brahma_suutra.pdf Archive 2]</ref>}}
 
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Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] include:
 
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* [[Brahma Sutras]] (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.<ref name=nvisaeva35>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30</ref> The text contains 555 ''sutras'' in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the [[Upanishads]].<ref name=jamesloch124>James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 124</ref> It is one of the foundational texts of the [[Vedānta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref name=jamesloch124/>
 
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* [[Yoga Sutras]] – contains 196 sutras on [[Yoga]] including the eight limbs and meditation. The ''Yoga Sutras'' were compiled around 400 CE by [[Patanjali]], taking materials about yoga from older traditions.<ref>{{Citation | last =Wujastyk| first =Dominik | year =2011 | title =The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice" | publisher =Princeton University Press|page=33}}</ref> The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and spiritual traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages.<ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0691143774|page=xvi}}</ref>
 
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* [[Samkhya Sutra]] – is a collection of major [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] texts of the [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on [[dualism]] of Kapila.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Samkhya Pravachana Sutra] NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i</ref> It consists of six books with 526 sutras.
 
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{{Quote box
 
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|quote  =
 
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<poem>
 
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Without explanation:
 
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Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This different from body, because heterogeneous. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it is expressed by means of the sixth. (Sutra 3, Book 6)
 
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With Vijnanabhiksu's explanatory [[bhasya]] filled in:
 
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Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not, since we are aware of "I think", because there is no evidence to defeat this. Therefore all that is to be done is to discriminate it from things in general. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This soul is different from the body because of heterogeneous or complete difference between the two. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it, the Soul, is expressed by means of the sixth case, for the learned express it by the possessive case in such examples as 'this is my body', 'this my understanding'; for the possessive case would be unaccountable if there were absolute non-difference, between the body or the like, and the Soul to which it is thus attributed as a possession. (Sutra 3, Book 6)
 
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</poem>
 
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|author = – [[Kapila]] in ''Samkhya Sutra''
 
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|source = Translated by James Robert Ballantyne<ref>Kapila (James Robert Ballantyne, Translator, 1865), {{Google books|mOY9AAAAcAAJ|The Sāmkhya aphorisms of Kapila}}, pages 156-157</ref><ref>Max Muller et al (1999 Reprint), Studies in Buddhism, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 8-120612264, page 10 with footnote</ref>
 
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|width  = 80%
 
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}}
 
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* [[Vaisheshika Sutra]] - is the foundational text of the [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, dated to between 4th-century BCE to 1st-century BCE, authored by Kanada.<ref name=klausklos335/> With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], epistemology and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of [[Dharma]]; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."<ref name=klausklos335>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 334-335</ref><ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, pages 98-107</ref>
 
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* [[Nyaya Sutras]] – is an ancient text of [[Nyaya]] school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between 6th-century BCE to 2nd-century CE.<ref name=jfowlerpor129>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, page 129</ref><ref>B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.</ref> It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology and metaphysics.<ref>Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), ''Nyaya Sutras of Gautama'' (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass,  ISBN 978-81-208-1264-2</ref><ref>SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807488</ref> These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> Book two is about ''[[pramana]]'' (epostemology), book three is about ''prameya'' or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/>
 
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Reality is truth (''prāma'', foundation of correct knowledge), and what is true is so, irrespective of whether we know it is, or are aware of that truth.
 
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|author = – Akṣapada Gautama in ''[[Nyaya]] Sutra''
 
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* [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa Sutras]] - is the foundational text of the [[Mimamsa]] school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini, and it emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, that is rituals and religious works as means to salvation.<ref name=jeanfowler67>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, pages 67-86</ref> The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the [[Nyaya]] school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology.<ref name=jeanfowler67/> An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 ''sutras''.<ref name=jeanfowler67/>
 
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* Dharma-sutras - of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana and Vāsiṣṭha
 
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* Artha-sutras - the Niti Sutras of Chanakya and Somadeva are treatises on governance, law, economics and politics. Versions of Chanakya Niti Sutras have been found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.<ref>SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800632, pages 586-587</ref> The more comprehensive work of Chanakya, the [[Arthashastra]] is itself composed in many parts, in ''sutra'' style, with the first Sutra of the ancient book acknowledging that it is a compilation of [[Artha]]-knowledge from previous scholars.<ref>Thomas Trautman (2012), Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth, Penguin, ISBN 978-0670085279, pages 16-17, 61, 64, 75</ref>
 
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* [[Kama-sutra]]s
 
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* Moksha-sutras
 
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* [[Shiva-sutras]]
 
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* [[Narada Bhakti Sutra]]
 
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==Buddhism==
 
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{{further|Buddhist texts|List of suttas}}
 
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{{Buddhism}}
 
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Some scholars consider that the Buddhist use of ''sutra'' is a faulty Sanskritization of the [[Prakrit]] or Pali word sutta and that the latter actually represented Sanskrit ''sūkta'', "well spoken, good news".<ref>K. R. Norman: ''A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Lectures 1994''. (Buddhist Forum, Vol. v.) xx, 193 pp. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1997. p. 104</ref> The early Buddhist sutras do not present the aphoristic, nearly cryptic nature of the Hindu sutras even though they also have been designed for mnemonic purposes in an oral tradition. On the contrary, they are most often lengthy, with many repetitions which serve the mnemonic purpose of the audience.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} They share the character of sermons of "good news" with the Jaina sutras, whose original name of ''sūya'' in Ardha Magadhi can derive from Sanskrit ''sūkta'', but hardly from ''sutra''.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
 
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In [[Buddhism]], sutra or sutta refers mostly to [[Buddhist texts#canonical texts|canonical scriptures]].{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
 
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In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], these are known as 經 ([[pinyin]]: ''jīng''). These teachings are assembled in part of the [[Tripiṭaka]] which is called the ''[[Sutta Pitaka]]''. There are many important or influential [[Mahayana]] texts, such as the ''[[Platform Sutra]]'' and the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', that are called sutras despite being attributed to much later authors.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
 
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==Jainism==
 
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{{Jainism}}
 
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In the Jain tradition, sutras are an important genre of "fixed text", which used to be memorized.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Whitney Kelting |authorlink=Mary Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3|pages=84–85}}</ref>
 
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The [[Kalpa Sūtra]] is, for example, a Jain text with scripture of monastic rules,<ref>{{cite book|author=John Cort |title=Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC |year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973957-8 |pages=138–139 }}</ref> as well as the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras.<ref>{{cite book | last =Jacobi | first =Hermann |editor=Max Müller | title =Kalpa Sutra, Jain Sutras Part I | publisher =Oxford University Press | year =1884 }}</ref> Many sutras discuss all aspects of ascetic and lay life in Jainism. Various ancient sutras particularly from the early 1st millennium CE, for example, states M. Whitney Kelting, recommend "[[bhakti]] as devotionalism is a central part of a Jain practice".<ref name=kelting111>{{cite book|author= M. Whitney Kelting| authorlink=Mary Whitney Kelting | title= Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3 |pages=111–112 }}</ref>
 
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The surviving scriptures of Jaina tradition, such as the [[Acaranga Sutra]] ([[Jain Agamas|Agamas]]) exist in sutra format,<ref name=jainigasjd32>{{cite book|author=Padmanabh S. Jaini |title=Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GRA-uoUFz3MC |date=1991 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06820-9 |pages=32 }}</ref> as is the [[Tattvartha Sutra]] – a Sanskrit text accepted by all four Jainism sects as the most authoritative philosophical text that competely summarizes the foundations of Jainism.<ref>{{cite book|author=K. V. Mardia|title=The Scientific Foundations of Jainism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T_VCbRgKKNYC|year=1990|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0658-0|page=103|quote= '''Quote:''' Thus, there is a vast literature available but it seems that Tattvartha Sutra of Umasvati can be regarded as the main philosophical text of the religion and is recognized as authoritative by all Jains."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jaini|first=Padmanabh S. |title=The Jaina path of purification |url=http://books.google.com/?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C&pg=PA113 |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=81-208-1578-5|page=82}}</ref>
 
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== See also ==
 
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* [[Ananda Sutram]]
 
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* [[Sastra]]
 
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* [[Sutra copying]]
 
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* [[Sutram]]
 
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* [[Chinese Buddhist canon]]
 
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* [[Tibetan Buddhist canon]]
 
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* ''[[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta]]''
 
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* [[List of Majjhima Nikaya suttas]]
 
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==Notes==
 
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{{reflist|30em}}
 
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==References==
 
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* {{cite book| title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |author=[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]] |year=1900 |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton and company |chapter=[[s:A History of Sanskrit Literature/Chapter 9|The sūtras]]}}
 
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* Monier-Williams, Monier. (1899) ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary''. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass. p.&nbsp;1241
 
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* {{cite book |title = Scholastic Sanskrit: A Handbook for Students |year = 2007 |location = New York |publisher = Columbia University Press |last1 = Tubb |first1 = Gary A. |last2 = Boose |first2 = Emery R. |isbn = 978-0-9753734-7-7}}
 
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==External links==
 
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*[http://www.fodian.net/world/ Buddhist Scriptures in Multiple Languages]
 
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*[http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/Buddhism.htm#Sutras More Mahayana Sutras]
 
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*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm The Hindu Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and Vedanta] Sacred-texts.com
 
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*[http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/sutra.pdf A Modern sutra]
 
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*[http://www.uwest.edu/sanskritcanon/index.html Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon]
 
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*[http://www.buddhistinformation.com/ida_b_wells_memorial_sutra_library/ Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library] (Pali Suttas)
 
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{{Indian Philosophy}}
 
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{{Buddhism topics}}
 
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{{Hindudharma}}
 
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{{Authority control}}
 
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[[Category:Buddhist terminology]]
 
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[[Category:Hindu texts]]
 
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[[Category:Jain phrases]]
 
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[[Category:Mahayana texts]]
 
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[[Category:Sutra literature| ]]
 
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[[Category:Tripiṭaka]]
 

Revision as of 18:14, 31 January 2018

A sutra (IAST: sūtra) is an aphorism or other teaching that is part of the ancient religious traditions originating in South Asia, particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.[1][2][3] The term sutra can broadly refer to a single aphorism, a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or even a condensed manual or text.[2] Sutras are considered a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts.[3]

In Hinduism, sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short aphoristic statements.[3][4] Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.[2][3] The oldest sutras of Hinduism are found in the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas.[5][6] Every school of Hindu philosophy, Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.[4][7][8]

In Buddhism, sutras, also known as suttas, are canonical scriptures, many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings of Gautama Buddha. The Pali form of the word, sutta, is used exclusively to refer to the scriptures of the early Pali Canon, the only texts recognized by Theravada Buddhism as canonical.[citation needed]

In Jainism, sutras also known as suyas are canonical sermons of Mahavira contained in the Jain Agamas as well as some later (post-canonical) normative texts.[9][10]

Etymology

File:Birch bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691.jpg
A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of ancient Panini Sutra, a treatise on grammar,[11] found in Kashmir.

The word sūtra (Sanskrit: सूत्र, Pali: sūtta, Ardha Magadhi: sūya) means "string, thread".[2][3] The root of the word is siv, that which sews and holds things together.[2][12] The word is related to sūci (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",[13] and sūnā (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".[2]

In the context of literature, sūtra means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.[2][3]

A sūtra is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words".[3] A collection of sūtras becomes a text, and this is also called sūtra (often capitalized in Western literature).[2][3]

A sūtra is different from other components such as Shlokas, Anuvyakhayas and Vyakhyas found in ancient Indian literature.[14] A sūtra is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message,[15] while a Shloka is a verse that conveys the complete message and is structured to certain rules of musical meter,[16][17] a Anuvyakhaya is an explanation of the reviewed text, while a Vyakhya is a comment by the reviewer.[14][18]

  1. ↑ Template:Cite dictionary
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for sutra, page 1241
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3, pages 249
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0, pages 54–55
  5. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named maxmullerhas108
  6. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named winternitz252
  7. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named maxmullerhas74
  8. ↑ White, David Gordon (2014). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. pp. 194–195. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named kelting111
  10. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named jainigasjd32
  11. ↑ Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, pages 150–152
  12. ↑ MacGregor, Geddes (1989). Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy (1st ed.). New York: Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-019-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  13. ↑ suci Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Max Muller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford University Press, page 110–111
  15. ↑ Irving L. Finkel (2007). Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. British Museum Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-7141-1153-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  16. ↑ Kale Pramod (1974). The Theatric Universe: (a Study of the Natyasastra). Popular. p. 8. ISBN 978-81-7154-118-8.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  17. ↑ Lewis Rowell (2015). Music and Musical Thought in Early India. University of Chicago Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-226-73034-9.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  18. ↑ व्याख्या, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
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