Changes

# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.

# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.

# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.

# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.

# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>

# '''[[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>

# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.

# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.

# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.

# '''[[Siddhanta Skandha (सिद्धान्त स्कन्ध)|Siddhanta granthas]]''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.

# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.

# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.

# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.

# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, [[Mahabharata (महाभारतम्)|Mahabharata]], Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.

##'''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.

##'''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.

##'''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.

##'''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===

In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":92">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include

In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":92">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":82" />

 

rūparasagandhasparśāḥ saṃkhyāḥ parimāṇāni pṛthaktvaṃ saṃyogavibhāgau paratvāparatve buddhayaḥ sukhaduḥkhe icchādveṣau prayatnāśca guṇāḥ | vaiśeṣika-1,1.6 |</blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include

# रूप or form/shape/colour

# रूप or form/shape/colour

# रस or taste

# रस or taste

# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit

# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit

# शब्द - Sound

# शब्द - Sound

Gunas are also elaborated in by Acharya Charaka in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]]

Gunas are also elaborated in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] by Acharya Chanaka and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]].

=== Air vs Space ===

=== Air vs Space ===

In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":02" />

In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":02" />

== Concept of Motion ==

== Concept of Motion ==

=== Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===

=== Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===

Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":102">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the change of place of particles and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":102">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunction and disjunction i.e., change of place of particles (संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणम्)<ref>Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co. (Chapter 2: Hindu ideas on mechanics pp. 129-131)</ref> and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं क्षणिकत्वं मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् अगुणवत्वं गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् असमवायिकारणत्वं स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं च प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं च विशेषः ।।

एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं क्षणिकत्वं मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् अगुणवत्वं गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् असमवायिकारणत्वं स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं च प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं च विशेषः ।।

These properties may be stated as follows:<ref name=":42">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref><ref name=":112">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>

These properties may be stated as follows:<ref name=":42">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref><ref name=":112">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>

# peculiarity of a single motion affecting a single body (at a given time) since its change of place at that moment is one and definite.

# एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं || ekadravyavattvaṃ - peculiarity of a single motion affecting a single body (at a given time) since its change of place at that moment is one and definite.

# instantaneous change of place (simplest form of motion)

# क्षणिकत्वं || kṣaṇikatvaṃ - instantaneous change of place (simplest form of motion)

# property of relating to a single body; the action of a composite whole is determined by the action of the constituent parts taken together

# मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् || mūrtadravyavṛttitvam - property of relating to a single body; the action of a composite whole is determined by the action of the constituent parts taken together

# a lack of gunas or qualities

# अगुणवत्वं || aguṇavatvaṃ - a lack of gunas or qualities

# property of being generated by gravity, fluidity, volitional effort, and conjunctions (samyoga)

# गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं || gurutva-dravatva-prayatna-saṃyogajatvaṃ - property of being generated by gravity, fluidity, volitional effort, and conjunctions (samyoga)

# property of being opposed by conjunctions caused by themselves

# स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं || svakārya-saṃyoga-virodhitvaṃ - property of being opposed by conjunctions caused by themselves

# property of acting as independent cause of conjunctions and disjunctions

# संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् || saṃyoga-vibhāga-nirapekṣa-kāraṇatvam - property of acting as independent cause of conjunctions and disjunctions

# property of acting as non-inherent cause

# असमवायिकारणत्वं || asamavāyi-kāraṇatvaṃ - property of acting as non-inherent cause

# property of initiating effects (by conjunctions and disjunctions) in their own as well as in other substrates  

# स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं || svaparāśraya-samaveta-kāryārambhakatvaṃ - property of initiating effects (by conjunctions and disjunctions) in their own as well as in other substrates

# inability to initiate its own kind

# समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं || samāna-jātīyānārambhakatvaṃ - inability to initiate its own kind

# inability to generate motion in other bodies

# द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं || dravyānārambhakatvaṃ - inability to generate motion in other bodies

# ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)

# प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं || pratiniyatajātiyogitvam | digviśiṣṭakāryārambhakatvaṃ - ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)

Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards motion as instantaneous, distinguishing it from impressed motion, and momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":112" />

Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards motion as instantaneous, distinguishing it from impressed motion, and momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":112" />

=== Cosmic Motion ===

=== Cosmic Motion ===

In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":42" /> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,

In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":42" /> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,  

=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===

=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===

Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":62">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":42" />

Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":62">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":42" />

* उन्नमनम् rising upward

* उन्नमनम् rising upward

'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":92" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":92" />

'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":92" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":92" />

* Having existence (सद्)

* having existence (सद्)

* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)

* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)

* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)

* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)

The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>

The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>

=== Gravitation ===

=== Gravitation ===

=== Vega: Inertia, Momentum and Acceleration ===

=== Vega: Inertia, Momentum and Acceleration ===

A motion has been conceived as a change of place in a particle, instantaneous and incapable of producing another motion. But when motion is caused by impact (abhighata) or impelling push (nodana) it develops a samskara or persistent tendency to motion. This persistent tendency of a moving body to continue its motion has been called vega. That vega is a samkara has been clearly stated by Prashastapada. According to him, samskara is of three types<ref name=":42" />

A motion has been conceived as a change of place in a particle, instantaneous and incapable of producing another motion. But when motion is caused by impact (abhighata) or impelling push (nodana) it develops a samskara or persistent tendency to motion. This persistent tendency of a moving body to continue its motion has been called vega. That vega is a samskara has been clearly stated by Prashastapada. According to him, samskara is of three types<ref name=":42" />

* vega or momentum

* vega or momentum

* bhavana or mental impression

* bhavana or mental impression