Karma (कर्म)

Karma (कर्म) also mentioned as Karman (कर्मन्) refers to the correct performance of an activity and is a universally admitted doctrine embedded in the principles of Sanatana Dharma. It generally refers to a series of actions which could be ethical or unethical leading to an apparently single, however, encapsulating a plethora of events, occurring as a consequence. Originally, “karman” referred to correct performance of ritualistic activity with a view to receiving the desired results. It was believed that if a ritual is duly performed, nobody, not even divinities, could stop the desired results. On the other hand, any mistake in the performance of rituals, say, word mispronounced, will give rise to undesired results. Thus, a correct action was a right action and no moral value was attached to such an action. Eventually karma acquired larger meaning and came to signify any correct action having ethical implications.

Central to the civilization of Sanatana Dharma encompassing almost all Indian traditions, including the Non-Vedic Buddhist, Jain and Sikh traditions, is the concept of Karma.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

A commonly stated account of karma in terms of “as you sow so shall you reap” or “as you act, so you enjoy or suffer” are attempts to connect the underlying thought to our ordinary ethical and soteriological thinking and, precisely for this reason, does not capture the underlying thought in its totality.

Thus this axiom does not go far enough although it is a simple way of understanding the import of Karma. For the sowing and reaping in the ancient Indian system, may be separated by a great gulf of time. This axiom is based on the premise that time is linear but Kala (time) is cyclical as per the laws of the cosmos according to Bharatiya Kalamana. The law of Karma says that any action (good or bad) has consequences, far in excess of what is visible to the eye. Thus the term Karma came to include not just actions but all its consequences (Phalita), for they - Karma and Karmaphala (the fruits of action) have Samavāyasaṃbandha (समवायसंबन्ध) in the sense that they are inherently and inseparably connected and arise together, even though separated by great lengths of time. Just like a fruit (Phala) manifests from a tree after a long period from the time the seed was sown, so also Karmaphala, takes time to emerge.

व्युतपत्तिः ॥ Etymology

The word “karma” is derived from the verbal root “kr । कृ (डुकृञ् करणे),” meaning “act,” “bring about,” “do,” "that which is characterized by movement". Its pratipadika form Karman (कर्मन्) is also widely in usage.

According to Shabdakalpadhruma Karma is defined as कर्त्तुः क्रियया यद्व्याप्यते तद्वा क्रियाव्याप्यं कर्म्मेति । (Shabdakalpadhruma) that when the karta (subject who does the karma) by his actions permeates or the spread of the action itself.

According to Vyakarana shastra, Karma is defined as that which is earnestly desired by the Karta as a fruit of his action. व्याकरणपरिभाषिते कर्त्त्रा क्रियाफलाश्रयतयाप्तुमिष्टतमे पदार्थे “कर्त्तुरीप्सिततमं कर्म” (Vachaspatyam)

The words ‘Karma and Kriti’ refer to the deeds done by a man and the actions taken by him. While the word ‘Kriti’ refers to the act of doing, accomplishments, making an effort, performing an act, the word ‘Karma’ refers to the work done or the deeds that are undertaken by a man. Both these terms are closely linked with each other and cannot be separated and understood correctly. If one does any deed, he is naturally taking some action. Whereas the term ‘action’ applies to the physical activity, the process of doing anything, the activity itself, the term ‘deed’ would apply to something someone has done, a notable achievement. An action is taken to accomplish success in one’s endeavour, while the deed would describe in general terms the category under which one’s actions can be classified—i.e. whether the action was good or bad.

The doctrine of karma forms the basis of a plethora of ethical, metaphysical, psychological, and theological siddhantas given by ancient maharshis, and is one of the core civilizational principles given to the world by Sanatana Dharma.

कर्मलक्षणम् ॥ Karma Lakshanam

Vaiseshika Darshana

Karma, is motion according to the Maharshi Kanada who gave us the Vaiseshika Darshana. But it is a deeper concept than mere physical displacement with respect to time.

एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । संयोगविभागवेगानां कर्म समानम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.२० । (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.17 and 20)

The characteristics of motion are

1. एकद्रव्यम् । being dependent or pertinent to one single material entity (or substance)
2. अगुणं । not possessing any guna (quality)
3. संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारण। independent cause (essential cause) for both conjunction and disjunction

Motion is the common cause of conjunction, disjunction and speed. Another lakshana of Karma is as follows

कर्म कर्मसाध्यं न विद्यते। (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.11)

Motion does not exist (which) can be caused by (another) motion.

One motion cannot be caused by another motion without the material entity (substance) and its qualities. Motion requires a cause such as some substance along with its gunas.

Thus the characteristics of Karma or Activity can be summarized as

1. Activity/Motion depends on substance
2. By itself, Activity does not possess any guna. It is one of the two important features possessed by matter or substance.
3. It is said to be active when the substance moves from one position to another. In this process motion (Karma) is the common cause for any disjunction (Vibhaga or separation) of the substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (Samyoga or joining) with a new position. Motion is common cause of conjunction, disjunction and speed (or impetus) with which the substance moves.
4. Karma is not instantaneous. Vyomashiva clearly explains that motion is not instantaneous instead it is incremental. This is true even in a process like cooking the food where the food is neither cooked instantaneously nor does a change occur in its state until a minimum energy is expended. Such a minimum energy can be seen as similar to the threshold energy concept of today. The incremental nature of change in substances explained by Vyomashiva is what follows from today’s relativistic physics about no action being instantaneous.

Vedanta Darshana

Depending on the context, Karma according to Vedanta could mean (a) any act, irrespective of its nature; (b) a moral act, especially in the accepted ritualistic sense; and (c) accumulated results, i.e., unfructified fruits of all actions. Underlying these senses is the idea that a person by doing, by acting, creates something and shapes his/her destiny.

कर्माणि भेदाः ॥ Types of Karma

Based on Direction of Movement

Interpreted as motion, Karma can be classified into five categories based on the direction of movement as explained by the Vaiseshika sutra below.

उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.7)

They are

1. उत्क्षेपणम् ॥ Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement): movement causing conjunction with a spot above the present spot
2. अवक्षेपणम् ॥ Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement): movement causing conjunction with a spot below the present spot
3. आकुञ्चनम् ॥ Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion): movement causing conjunction with a nearer spot
4. प्रसारणम् ॥ Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension): movement causing conjunction with a spot farther from the body
5. गमनम् ॥ Gamana (Other general movements): movement in general with flexibility to permit any type of motion. As per Maharshi Kanada and Prashastapada, the following additional categories of movements universally observable are special types of motion.
   1. Rotation or circular motion (भ्रमणम् - Bhramaṇa)
   2. Evacuation, gushing out or expulsion (रेचन - Recana)
   3. Harmonic motion, flowing (स्यन्दनम् - Syandana)
   4. Horizontal movement (तिर्यग्गमनम् - tiryag-gamana)
   5. Bending forward (नमनम् - namana)
   6. Rising upward (उन्नमनम् - un-namana)

It is interesting that गमनम्। motion can mean, in general, just about any type of motion as mentioned above.

Based on the Agent of Action

Karma is of two types based on the causal agency of action

1. सत्-प्रयत्न कर्म ॥ Sat-prayatna Karma - Action is caused due to the Prayatna (effort) by a person or an external agent which sets about the action on a thing. Thus the cause of action of a thing is due to the Prayatna of another thing or being, thus is called Prayatna-purvaka karma. Example - A person moves a table, the movement of the table is due to the Prayatna or effort of a person.
2. असत्-प्रयत्न कर्म ॥ Asat-prayatna Karma - An action is not directly caused by effort, but happens due to the impulse sustained by the initial action. Example - Rebounding activity. A ball is thrown on a wall - this is the initial action, it rebounds due to the impulse of the retained from the initial action.

Based on the Nature of Activity

Karma is again of many kinds apart from general activities and includes many dharmik (or spiritual) rites or rituals described in scriptural texts.

1. लौकिक-कर्म ॥ Laukika Karma - These include the daily activities such as walking, running, reading etc.
2. नित्य-कर्म ॥ Nitya Karma (Regular rituals) नित्यानि - अकरणे प्रत्यवाय सधानानी संध्यावन्दनादीनी । (Veda. Sara. 1.9) Include the daily dharmik activities such as devata puja, sandhyavandana. According to Mimamsakas these rituals are obligatory and therefore not performing them produces pratyavaya in the sense of harm or papa (पापम्) to those who are supposed to perform them. Panchamahayajnas are included in this category. Nityakarma does not include daily duties, it also includes regular/periodic scheduled karmas such as Amavasya tarpana, and Grahana karmas. Some nitya karmas include:
   • Snana (bathing)
   • Sandhyavandana
   • Samidadhana
   • Devata-archana
   • Aupasana
   • Agnihotra
3. नैमित्तिक-कर्म ॥ Naimittika Karma (Occasional rituals) नैमित्तिकानि - पुत्रजन्माद्यनुबन्धानि जातेष्टादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.10) Jaateshti (Ishti a kind of yajna) etc., performed subsequent to birth of a son are called Naimittika Karmas to be observed on special occasions. The performance of these is obligatory for a grhastha.
4. काम्य-कर्म ॥ Kamya Karma (Intentional rituals) काम्यानि - स्वर्गादीष्टसाधनानि ज्योतिष्टोमादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.7) Yajnas such as Jyotishtoma etc., are perform to enable their performers to get the desired fruits such as living in heaven etc., are known as Kamya karmas. These ceremonies are performed with a definite motive or desire.
5. प्रायश्चित्त-कर्म ॥ Prayaschitta Karma (expiatory rituals) प्रायश्चित्तानि - पापक्षयसाधनानि चान्द्रयाणादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.11) Rituals such as Chaandrayana vrata etc., which are instrumental in the expiation of papa (पापम्) are called Prayaschitta karmas.
6. निषिद्ध-कर्म॥Nishiddha Karma (forbidden actions) निषिद्धनिषिद्धानि - नरकाद्यनिष्टसाधनानि ब्राह्मणहननादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.8) Actions such as the slaying of a Brahmin etc., which bring about undesired results as going to Naraka (for punishments) are forbidden acts.
7. उपासना ॥ Upasana Karma (Mental activities) उपासनानि - सगुणब्रह्मविषयमानसव्यापार-रूपाणि शाण्डिल्यविद्यादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.12) Mental activities relating to Saguna Brahma - such as are described in the Shandilya Vidya are termed Upasanas or devotional activities.

Purpose of Karmas

Based on the context different Karmas have various perspectives. In Vedanta, the subject of Karma has some special implications and they deal with the purpose of karma as follows.

1. Nitya and other (Naimittika and Prayaschitta) works mainly serve the primary purpose of purifying the mind; they destroy the papa of a person.
2. The secondary purpose of the Nitya, Naimittika and Upasana karmas are the attainment of the Pitrloka and Satyaloka respectively. कर्मणा पितृलोको विद्यया देवलोकः। (Brhd. Upan. 1.5.16) By performing karmas the world of Pitrs is to be gained and by meditation the world of Devas is to be attained. Vidya here means knowledge gained through Upasana.
3. Upasanas are austerity activities chiefly aimed at the concentration of the mind along with destruction of papa.

The following passage from the Naishkarmya-Siddhi by Sureshvaracharya (1.52) shows how the performance of the Nitya Karma leads to the highest Knowledge.

“The performance of the daily obligatory rites leads to the acquisition of virtue ; this leads to the destruction of papa, which in turn results in the purification of the mind. This purification of the mind leads to the comprehension of the true nature of Samsara or relative existence ; from this results Vairagyam (renunciation), which arouses a desire for liberation; from this desire results a search for its means; from it comes the renunciation of all actions ; thence the practice of Yoga, which leads to an habitual tendency of the mind to settle in the Self, and this results in the knowledge of the meaning of such Sruti passages as "तत् त्वमसि" which destroys ignorance, thus leading to the establishment in one’s own Self.”

Vedantic Perspective of Karma

Karma is based on the single principle that no cause goes without producing its effects, and there is no effect that does not have an appropriate cause. Since many of our actions seem to go unrewarded in the present life, and many evil actions go unpunished, it seems reasonable to suppose that such consequences, if they do not arise in this life, must arise in the next.

Karma carries the belief that differences in the fortunes and the misfortunes of individual lives, to the extent they are not adequately explicable by known circumstances in this life, must be due to unknown (adrsta) causes which can only be actions done in their former lives. These two concepts of karma and rebirth are interlinked and together form a complex structure.

A necessary sequence of lives, worlds (insofar as each experiencer has his/her own world), destinies, and redemptions is posited in order to eliminate all traces of contingency, arbitrariness, or good/bad luck from the underlying order. It is not a causal order in the ordinary sense, because the causal order obtains within a world and is not the result of the moral nature of God as the creator or attributing moral nature to the God (e.g., when one says “the God is good”), which presupposes that the God’s will, despite its omnipotence, conforms to this underlying order. As a consequence, though religious thinkers in India formulated their concepts of divinity to conform to this underlying order, the very fact that the atheistic thinking, e.g., Buddhism, and non-theistic thinking, e.g., Advaita Veda¯nta (non-dualistic Veda¯nta), recognized this absolute presupposition only shows that theology, like morality, is only a faint attempt to throw light on this presupposition and does not completely illuminate it.

Most Indian thinkers seek to establish karma on logical grounds. The two familiar arguments are that in the absence of such an order, there would arise the twin fallacies of phenomena that are not caused and that which do not produce any effect. This idea of necessary causality requires, better yet, demands, that every event has a cause and that every event must produce its effects. It is worth noting in this context that the idea of causal necessity that is applied is modeled after empirical and natural order best exemplified in scientific laws and philosophically captured in Kant’s Second Analogy of Experience.5

The resulting understanding of karma/rebirth then becomes a super science, a science that not only comprehends the natural order and the human order but also all possible worlds, each world corresponding to one birth. The order that is being posited in the karma/rebirth is not a natural order, and what is called a “theory,” if it is a theory, is neither a scientific theory nor a super science. Many Hindu and the Buddhist enthusiasts wish to see it as a scientific theory, though it does not share any features of a scientific theory. Then, there are those who regard it a “convenient fiction,”6 which would imply that the entire pan-Indian culture, both the Vedic and the Buddhist, is based upon a fiction. Again, where must we position ourselves as critics in order to hold such a view of these ultimate presuppositions? As thinkers, we have no ground to stand upon from which we can pass such a judgment.

A plausible philosophical move would be to say that karma/rebirth encapsulates Indic peoples’ understanding of a transcendental ground of the human life and the world. It is not an empirical or scientific theory, it belongs to a different order, neither natural nor supernatural (the supernatural being understood as another natural). The transcendental, usually construed as the domain of subjectivity, selectively isolates an area of human experience and grounds the totality of the empirical in it. Many thinkers have rejected this conception of ground and prefer that the ultimate ground be ontological, some principle of being. Karma and rebirth encapsulate a fundamental understanding of that ontological ground, of our relationship to the world, which cannot be adequately accounted by the metaphysic of nature or metaphysic of subjectivity. Both the Advaitins and the Buddhists postulate beginningless ignorance (avidya¯) and argue that this principle accounts for our inescapable experience of obscurity, darkness, and failure to completely understand this ontological ground. And yet, both the Hindus and the Buddhist philosophers have sought to throw light on it in different ways and have assured us that though we do not quite understand it, wise individuals do, because they have a direct experience of this ontological ground. It is worth noting that in Advaita Veda¯nta, this beginningless avidya¯ is not simply non-knowledge, i.e., not knowing; it is also a positive entity, the source of all creativity, indeed, of entire mundaneity. In Indian thought karma rebirth, no matter how shielded from us, no matter how inviolable in its operations (even gods cannot escape it), gives to humans the possibility of escaping from its clutches, becoming truly free, and realizing one’s essence, which is moksha.