The Concept of a Temple (देवालयस्य सङ्कल्पना)

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Introduction

Almost every civilization throughout the course of human history developed a religious system centering around some kind of super natural or divine power. Belief in such a concept of a divine power in Indic culture can be traced back to the pre-historic times. Neolithic cultures in India have produced evidence of highly stylized images of mother goddesses who embody fecundity. Due to the paucity of more convincing evidence, we cannot say with exactitude about the religious conditions prevailing during the time of the Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization (c. 3500 BCE-1900 BCE). However it is certain that this civilization did possess a religious system and structures like the Great Bath at Mohen-jo-daro may have served as some kinds of religious buildings. We do not have a concrete proof about the existence of temples during this civilization though some scholars are inclined to consider an apsidal structure unearthed at the site of Banavali in Haryana as a temple. The origins of Sanatana Dharma are embedded in the Vaidika Dharma. The Vaidika Culture represented by the vast corpus of literature consisting of the Veda Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads had a very highly developed religious organization. The Yajna Samstha was the nucleus of Vaidika Dharma and it is through the myriad Yajnas, Richas and Samans that our Vaidika ancestors expressed their devotion to the Vaidika Devatas. The Yajnas were performed in specially designated areas known as Yajna or Yaga Shalas and it would be in the Yajna Shalas that the Chiti or altar would be constructed. Almost all scholars on temple architecture converge on the point that the Hindu Temple evolved from the Vaidika Chiti as a response to the growing impact of the Bhakti traditions. In addition, it is highly doubtful whether temples existed during the Vaidika period.

Temples (देवालयाः) are one of the most redeeming and prominent hallmarks of Sanatana Dharma and its most representative feature. The land of Bharata is perceived as the land of temples with every region manifesting its own unique traditions of temple architecture and culture. Temples, as a general practice are constructed in the close vicinity of tirthas (तीर्थानि) which mean fords or crossing places on rivers or sea shores. The word 'tirtha' is derived from the Sanskrit root (धातु ) Tr (तृ ) which means a ford or crossing at a water source. At a spiritual level a tirtha is understood as a means to help us cross the ocean of existence (भवाब्धि ).

Temples enable us to connect to the divine and are thus channels which help us transcend our mundane material world and attain Moksha. Temples are known by different names: Devalaya, Devayatana, Mandira, Prasada,Vimana, Devagriha etc. They are essentially a structure where the presence and potency of the divine are felt. In other words, temples are the very abodes of God or Ishvara or Bhagavan. The term prasada is synonymous with a palace. The Devata installed in the temple is accorded the status of a king and the prasada is his palace. The late Swami Harshananda ji of the Ramakrishna Mission remarks that the high walls surrounding the temple complex are similar to the ramparts of a fort and the tall gopurams are an emulation of the great gateways of the capital cities (Harshananda, 2007: 12). Many temples in India, specially Southern India have 'Dhvaja Stambhas' in their courtyards. These Dhvaja Stambhas represent the insignia of the deity enshrined in the temple. The Ishanashivagurudevapaddhati, an early medieval Shaiva text (c. 1000 CE) testifies that the temple is a concrete form of Lord Shiva and should be contemplated on and worshipped and the temples made up of the presence of Lord Shiva and Shakti. The site of a temple is invariably a Tirtha irrespective of its location. . According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana images should be installed  in forts, auspicious cities, markets , in villages of cowherds where there are no markets , in gardens , on river banks , mountain tops, valleys and particularly in caves. The construction of temples is concomitant to the installation of the images at the different localities just mentioned. The presence of water is essential at the site where a temple is built.

Nomenclatures of the Temple

The two most common names for a temple in Indic texts on architecture are 'Vimana' and 'Prasada'. In Sanatana Dharma,the temple is also equaled to the cosmic, primordial Purusha. According to the Vayu Purana (IV.30-31), the Purusha holds the measuring rod considers himself as comprising of various constituents. 'Vimana' is a building constructed on sound proportions. The measuring of an object implies the creation of an object by according it a definite shape and existence. Just like the primeval Purusha is made up of different parts, the temple is also composed of various parts. The Purusha is perceived as the primary form of the Brahman and it is because of this reason that he bears the measuring rod. He is the architect of the universe and is therefore given the appellation of 'Vishvakarman'. The manifested world around us is constituted of all things which can be seen, have a concrete shape and can be measured. The term 'Vimana' has been frequently used to denote a temple. The constituents of the Vimana are measured and in fact the universe itself, which is the manifestation of the Supreme God is a Vimana and a macrocosm. The temple with its proportionate parts is also a Vimana created by man and represents the microcosm. Proportionate measurement (pramana) is crucial in the construction of the temple (Vimana) and to the image (pratima) installed inside it. The Vimana thus formed through the integration of numerous measured components is the very abode and body of the Supreme God. One thing which needs to be noted here that the term 'Vimana' stands for the principal shrine which has the Garbhagriha or the sanctum. The rest of the structures like mandapas or subsidiary shrines within the enclosure of the temple are subordinate to the main temple. The mandapas in the Kalinga Style of Architecture prevalent in the state of Odisha (known as Pidha Deul or Jagamohana), though complimentary to the main temple (known as Rekha Deula) are almost independent structures. They differ from the main temple not only in terms of size but also stylistic and architectural features. Though these buildings are secondary in relation to the main temple, they are nevertheless built in proportion to it. Thus the 'Vimana' is a word which designates a temple construction in conformity to tradition or the Shastras. All the measurements of the temple proper and its accessory buildings are in relation to the image or Shiva Linga enshrined within the Garbhagriha. The Vimanas are thus subject to various proportions. Texts like the Matsya and Garuda Puranas as well as the Hayashrishapancharatra have given this a very detailed treatment. The term 'Vimana' used for the main temple finds a synonym in the term 'Prasada'. The term 'Prasada' implies settling down (pra sad). It is a seat created from that which has settled down and taken a definite shape to become the residence of God. The term settling down indicates the settling down of the bricks or the building material which are imbued with the presence of the Supreme Principle.

Origins of the Temple

The origins of the Hindu Temple cannot be attributed to one source. The socle or foundation of the temple which is known as the adhishthana or pitha, the garbhagriha and its superstructure as well as the architectural members that support the finial are the three principal constituents of the temple as seen vertically. have independent origins. However the noteworthy point is that though these components come from disparate sources they were harmoniously integrated to form the structure of the Hindu Temple. This phenomena can be observed with respect to almost all temples throughout India. The walls or bhitti or the garbhagriha are constructed on the pitha in a manner similar to the piling of the chiti on the ground or vedi. The lowermost component of the pitha is also known as vedi or vedika. In certain temples, a pedestal or sub-socle known as the upa-pitha is added below the pitha thus increasing the height of the temple. The foundational parts of the temple like the pedestal, the socle and the Vedika represent the memory of the holy sacrificial ground (vedi) on which was piled the altar or citi in which the fire for the yajna would be kindled. It is believed that the fire would carry the offerings to the respective devatas. The flame or agni inside the chiti was substituted by the superstructure of the temple which was firmly established on the adhishthana. The temple itself corresponds to the offerings made to the fire. In the course of time, the act of building a temple was considered equivalent to the performance of a yajna, conferring the same merit on the patron. The foundational parts of the temple as well as its highest components are analogous to the Vaidika altar or chiti. The overall edfice of the temple appears like a huge pile. The walls of the garbhagriha with their thickness and the superstructure suggest that the whole building actually represent a chiti. The word 'chaitya' is also at times used for Hindu Temple thus indicating the fact that it has its origins embedded in the chiti. The prasada is in proportion to the object of veneration inside the sanctum. As in the case of the chiti, bricks (Ishtika) are the main building material for temples and wood and stone are also considered to be the same as ishtika.

The Hindu Temple also has its origins in the dolmen. The dolmen is a peculiar kind of stone structure built by people belonging to the Megalithic Culture. The Megalithic Culture was a pan-Indian Iron Age Culture which lasted till the early historical period (Some communities in India still practice these rituals). The makers of this culture erected various kinds of tome mortuary monuments as a mark of respect for the deceased. However not all dolmens were not structures to commemorate the departed and some simply demarcated a sacred site. The basic plan of the garbhagriha is generally square and in accordance with the Vastupurushamandala. The garbhagrihas of many of the early temples in North India like the Gupta temples are square or rather cubical in shape. Many of these temples have a low roof or lack a shikhara and resemble the dolmen. The dolmen is a structure where a large slab of stone is placed horizontally on three slabs of stone placed at right angles with each other to form a room or cell with one side open to serve as the entrance. Many temples from South India too seem to have been derived from the dolmen. They may be composed of stones cut in a rough manner with a Shiva Linga inside. A few other temples in South India were made from dressed stones resting on a pedestal, and fixed at proper angles. These kind of temples as wells as the shrines built by the Gond people in central India enable us to understand that the cubical garbhagriha with a stone slab cover are actually inspired from the dolmens. We may say that this dolmen-styled garbhagriha was assimilated into the structure of the Hindu Temple by placing the cubical cella on a socle. In the case of large temples the socle itself was built on a large open terrace known as jagati.

The garbhagriha also seems to have been modeled on the lines of the Vaidika shed of initiation and the structure made out of materials like bamboo or palm leaves. The Vaidika shed of initiation was itself built on a socle and the space inside was covered with four branches of trees, each fixed at one corner of a square and converging at a single point. The sadas or the place where the sacrificer (yajamana) , his wife and the officiating the priest would be seated constituted the antecedent of the garbhagriha.