Difference between revisions of "Yoga and Ayurveda Perspective on Workplace Well-Being"

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== Well-Being from Yogic and Ayurvedic Perspectives<ref name=":0" /> ==
 
== Well-Being from Yogic and Ayurvedic Perspectives<ref name=":0" /> ==
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A discussion on gunas, tridoshas and their subtle counterparts prana, tejas, and ojas, and jiva highlight the fundamental concepts underlying well-being from Yogic and Ayurvedic perspectives. These fundamental concepts common to both Yoga and Ayurveda that are essential to understand well-being as per the two traditions are discussed in the article Yoga and Ayurveda.
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A discussion on gunas, tridoshas and their subtle counterparts prana, tejas, and ojas, and jiva highlight the fundamental concepts underlying well-being from Yogic and Ayurvedic perspectives. These fundamental concepts common to both Yoga and Ayurveda that are essential to understand well-being as per the two traditions are discussed in the article [[Yoga and Ayurveda (योगः आयुर्वेदश्च)|Yoga and Ayurveda]].
  
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Frawley<ref>Frawley D (1999), Yoga and Ayurveda, Twin Lakes: Lotus Press.</ref> discusses the significance of the concepts mentioned above in Yoga and Ayurveda.
 
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* Both Yoga and Ayurveda use the three gunas for determining an individual’s mental and spiritual nature. With an emphasis on sattva guna, Yoga aims at the development of sattva for purification of mind and body and transcendence of sattva to realize our true Self that is beyond manifestation. Sattva is important in Ayurveda as it assists healing and promotes the fight against diseases.
 
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* As per Ayurveda, doshas form the basis of creation (substance) of the physical body, and predomination of one of the doshas determines one’s mind-body (psychophysiological) constitution. In Yoga, it is the doshas that help ascertain the effects of Yogic practices on the gross and subtle bodies and, further, define the practices needed in line with a specific mind-body constitution.
 
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* In a nutshell, gunas and doshas represent two axes, vertical and horizontal, of an individual’s nature comprising of psycho-spiritual and psychophysiological aspects.
 
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* Related to the three doshas are the three vital essences, prana, tejas and ojas, which are master forms<ref>Rao AV (2002), Mind in ayurveda, Indian J Psychiatry 44(3):201–211.</ref> of the biological humors. For both, Yoga and Ayurveda, in contrast to the doshas where an excess of biological humors causes pathology, an increase in the essences promotes positive health.
 
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* Both Yoga and Ayurveda address a human being as someone greater than the three bodies (gross, subtle, and causal) where the three bodies serve as bridges to this higher Self.
 
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* Both Yoga and Ayurveda work to purify the sheaths (panchakoshas) at the different levels to regenerate the physical body and spiritualize the subtle body with an aim to integrate all the faculties, gain balance, harmony, and realization of true Self.
 
 
It is interesting to note that Ashtanga Yoga (eight limbed) offers the path to address the multifacets of well-being.  
 
It is interesting to note that Ashtanga Yoga (eight limbed) offers the path to address the multifacets of well-being.  
 
* Yama and niyama (ethics pertaining to the internal and external world) are not premised on moral judgments; instead, they seek to gain control and quiet the disturbances and fluctuation of the overly active mind, regulate emotions, and promote socially benevolent behaviors.<ref>Cope S (2006), The wisdom of yoga, New York: Bantam.</ref>  
 
* Yama and niyama (ethics pertaining to the internal and external world) are not premised on moral judgments; instead, they seek to gain control and quiet the disturbances and fluctuation of the overly active mind, regulate emotions, and promote socially benevolent behaviors.<ref>Cope S (2006), The wisdom of yoga, New York: Bantam.</ref>  

Revision as of 12:43, 15 September 2020

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Yoga and Ayurveda are two ancient traditions originating from India that emphasize multidimensional and holistic well-being of all. Workplace well-being holds a significant place for people considering the centrality of work in their lives and the sheer amount of time and effort expended.[1]

This article discussing workplace well-being from the perspectives of Yoga and Ayurveda has been taken from the paper "Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda" (2020) by C. Dagar & A. Pandey in S. Dhiman (ed.), The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Well-Being.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction[1]

The term happiness is frequently used analogous to terms such as well-being and quality of life and signifies both individual and social welfare.[2]

A broad examination of the history of happiness highlights that its definition has evolved over time.

The spiritual view of happiness emphasizes the internal orientation that aims at the freedom from external sources of pain and pleasure and accepting the world with all its beauty and distortions.[3] Venerable to the spiritual view of happiness, Haidt[4] explains that one has to delve internally, and the external world cannot bring more than momentary happiness. He also mentions that there are some externals (relationships, work, the degree of control) that matter and are worth striving for to enhance the level of happiness. Haidt reconsiders happiness and states that it engenders from the link between self and others, self and work, and self and the beyond which is something bigger than the self.

Flourishing as a concept is associated with happiness[4] and high levels of well-being[5] and is defined as a state of complete or maximal well-being coupled with optimal functioning.[6] It is a holistic and broader representation of well-being comprising of intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions.[6][7]

As noted, work is one of the determinants of well-being and a potential means to flourish. Also, as per the report by World Health Organization (WHO) (1995), workplace constitutes a premise where individuals spend a substantial amount of time. Therefore, it is pivotal that individuals thrive and flourish at the workplace.

Yoga is a mind-body-based contemplative practice that aims at the integration of mind, body, and spirit. Its objectives include to cultivate a state of equilibrium, harmony, and a sense of awareness.[8] The Sanskrit word Ayurveda means “science of longevity.” It is not confined to being merely a system of medicine to prevent and treat diseases; it is a way to lead a healthy and fulfilling life.[9] Similar to Yoga, it is a holistic system that perceives a (whole) person as a combination of body, mind, and soul.[10] The practices underlying the traditions of both Yoga and Ayurveda aim at the complete well-being of an individual encompassing physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual dimensions (e.g., Rioux 2014).[11]

The aim of this article is to understand well-being in the context of the traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda and how the underlying philosophy and practices in these two ancient traditions have implications at the workplace and in management scholarship.

Health, Well-Being and Flourishing[1]

The conclusion of World War II that left the world in suffering and distress initiated the need to systematically study better life and multifold well-being.[12] The initial studies of Jahoda[13] and Gurin et al.[14] that are seminal works on mental health have made way for subsequent research on mental health through the study of subjective well-being.[12] Furthermore, the study of hedonic[15][16] and eudaimonic[17][18] aspects of well-being has formed the pillars that define flourishing.[6] This section presents an overview of health, happiness, and well-being literature and its connection with flourishing.

Health and Well-Being

Considering the concept of health, Keyes[19] notes that throughout our history, health has been defined with respect to three paradigms. Namely,

  1. Pathogenic ie. health as absence of disability, disease and premature death.
  2. Salutogenic ie. health as presence of positive human capacities and functioning.
  3. Complete state that is derived from ancient word for health, hale, denoting whole and strong.

Historically, the pathogenic approach has been dominant as earlier curing illnesses took precedence. However, the focus of the healthcare system to improve health by merely curing-preventing illnesses has come short of addressing the notion of complete health.

If we look at well-being, two schools of thoughts exist :

  1. Subjective well-being (hedonic) that includes happiness, life satisfaction, and positive and negative affect.[15]
  2. Psychological well-being (eudaimonic) that consists of a sense of purpose or meaning, personal enhancement, and so on.[17]

Subjective well-being refers to an individual’s evaluations of one’s own life comprising of both affective and cognitive aspects.[20] An individual with high subjective well-being experiences more pleasant than unpleasant emotions, more pleasures than pains, is engaged in interesting activities, and is (generally) satisfied with one’s life. Although numerous facets underlie a valuable life and mental health, the subjective well-being view emphasizes the individual’s own evaluations of one’s life.

Some of the human qualities such as kindness, humility, and forgiveness have a universal positive appeal for the very reason that they represent morally virtuous behavior and strength of character.[21] This perspective directly links to the eudaimonic view of well-being that stresses on the principles of expression and achievement of highest aspirations and inner potentials of an individual. Research highlights the strong association of specific values (hope, zest, gratitude, love, curiosity) with happiness and life satisfaction for both youth and adults.[22][23]

Flourishing

The research done on health, happiness, and well-being has served as the foundation to conceptualize flourishing. Flourishing as a term, in contemporary psychology, appears in the work of Corey Keyes[6] where he defines the continuum of mental health, separate from the continuum of mental illness, as comprising of a state of complete well-being (flourishing), moderate mental health, and languishing (incomplete mental health). Emphasizing the point that mental health is more than the absence of mental illness, Keyes[6] (2002) defines complete mental health as a state where an individual is free of all mental illness and is flourishing. There are four conceptualizations of flourishing by

  1. Keyes[6]
  2. Huppert and So[24]
  3. Diener et al[25]
  4. Seligman[7]

They highlight that flourishing has been operationalized in different ways. However, there exists a similarity with respect to two aspects.

  • Firstly, flourishing is associated with high levels of subjective well-being.
  • Secondly, well-being represents a multidimensional construct that cannot be adequately measured using single-item assessment.[5]

The primacy of flourishing in the various domains of life is evident from the research that indicates that happy people when compared to those who are less happy tend to function competently in life; they are relatively more productive, seek more social engagement, and tend to earn higher incomes.[20][26]Also, people who experience higher happiness or subjective well-being than those low in subjective well-being exhibit a more self-enhancing and enabling attributional style, and this suggests the key role of positive emotions in engendering positive cognitions, which consequently promotes further positive emotions.[27]

There are examples in experimental social psychology that specify the benefits of positive emotional experiences such as the influence on people’s perception and how they interpret social behaviors and initiate social interactions.[28] [29] Other upsides of experiencing positive emotions include people making positive evaluations (for both themselves and others) and lenient attributions, expressing more confidence, optimism, and being more accommodative in social relationships.[30][31][32]

Well-Being at Workplace[1]

Well-being at work is defined as an experience, which is influenced by factors, such as the internal culture and organizational ways of functioning, and by personal internal resources.[33] Three general sets of factors have been posited that influence well-being at the workplace.[34] These encompass

  1. Work setting (health, safety hazards)
  2. Personal characteristics (Type A or B behavior, locus of control)
  3. Occupational stress (factors pertaining to the job, role and relationships at work, career progression, structure and climate of organization).

Additionally, two interrelated sets of consequences of well-being in the workplace have been noted.[34] They comprise of

  1. Individual-level physical, psychological, and behavioral consequences.
  2. Organizational-level consequences, which are health insurance costs, productivity, and absenteeism.

Workplace well-being has been conceptualized as comprising of hedonic well-being, eudaimonic well-being, and social well-being. Additionally, workplace concepts display an extent of overlap with the three components of well-being:

  1. Subjective well-being ie. job satisfaction and positive attitudes, positive and negative affect.
  2. Eudaimonic well-being. For e.g. engagement, meaning, growth, calling.
  3. Social well-being For e.g. quality connections, satisfaction with coworkers, high-quality exchange relationships with leaders.[35]

Significance of Workplace Well-Being

Considering that people spend a substantial amount of time at work, it is essential to note that whether the work they do and the related conditions enable them to enhance their well-being and further towards the state of flourishing.

Relevance of workplace health and well-being can be seen from the fact that among the five domains comprising overall well-being, career well-being is regarded as the most important for most people.[36] It is also significant firstly because workplace represents a source of social and emotional involvement as a modern form of collective life,[37] thereby having a strong bearing on the relationships and associations people form. Secondly, work has become more than just a part of the life of an individual, that is to say, that even after leaving from the workplace, the work and its ancillaries still accompany the individual. Put alternatively, workplace well-being has trickle-down effects and connections with other domains of the life of people. And well-being has the potential to affect both workers and organizations in negative ways. Workers with poor well-being may be less productive, make hasty decisions, and be unprofessional towards work, which would be detrimental and diminish overall contributions to the organizations.[38]

Meaning and Orientations Towards Work

As discussed earlier, certain external conditions (e.g., work) go beyond the adaptation principle and represent specific changes that are worth striving for and can result in lasting happiness.[4] People relate to their work in one of the three ways. Namely,

  • A job ie. transactional, money-oriented.
  • A career ie. broad personal investment, promotion-oriented.
  • A calling ie. intrinsic fulfillment.[39]

Work as a calling is seen as an opportunity to contribute to the greater good or a higher purpose and is marked by frequent experiences of flow and without any resentment to quit. It is the pursuit of the right goals that mark the essential part of conditions that contribute towards flourishing. Right goals concerning the work one undertakes offer the avenue to create the states of flow and engagement. These two states have been described as nutriments to joy, absorption, meaningfulness, and well-being of a person.[40][41]

Through specific actions, such as strength-based work selection (via strength test[21]) and job-crafting by rethinking about the work from a broader perspective,[42] people can aim to experience greater happiness, satisfaction, and meaning with respect to their work. For instance, a person who cleans office space could see his or her work in the broader perspective of preventing medical issues arising out of unhygienic conditions.

There is evidence in the form of research to support that well-being and job performance correlate positively at the individual level and some strong evidence to claim a causal effect between the two under specific circumstances.

Yoga and Well-Being[1]

Considering the history of Yoga, its roots can be traced back as far as 5000 years in India.[43] Throughout its evolution over the ages, Yoga has emphasized on the important aspects such as holistic well-being (physiological, mental, emotional, and spiritual), regulating awareness and transcending towards the ultimate reality.[44] Yoga represents an original and ancient holistic way of life that includes physical, mental, moral, and spiritual domains of human existence.

Although there are different branches of Yoga (Raja Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga), with a focus on particular competencies, at its core, the objective of Yoga is self-transformation.[45] Sage Patanjali gave an “eightlimbed” structure to the Yogic path and led Yoga to attain its classical form, known as Ashtanga Yoga.[46] Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (Treatise on Yoga) delineate the different groups of practices:

  1. यमः | yamaḥ - moral practices (ethics while interacting with others).
  2. नियमः | niyamaḥ - self-discipline (ethics oriented towards self).
  3. आसनम् | āsanam - physical postures and exercises.
  4. प्राणायामः | prāṇāyāmaḥ - breath regulation.
  5. प्रत्याहारः | pratyāhāraḥ - sensory withdrawal (minimizing sensory input).
  6. धारणा | dhāraṇā - concentration (effortful, focused attention).
  7. ध्यानम् | dhyānam - meditation (effortless, perpetual flow of attention).
  8. समाधिः | samādhiḥ - self-transcendence.[47]

Collectively, the eight limbs form an organic whole and may be conceptualized as a mechanism to regulate thoughts, emotions, and behaviors and to augment the levels of well-being.[48]

Health and Well-Being in Yoga

Yoga’s view of health and well-being is a dynamic continuum of human nature evolving towards divinity and not just an end “state” to be attained and sustained. Here, the lowest point is represented by death and the highest point by self-transcendence (samadhi). What lie in between the two ends are the states of normal health and disease.[49]

The classical definition of Yoga,

योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः ॥ १.२ ॥[50] yogaścittavr̥ttinirodhaḥ ॥ 1.2 ॥

defines Yoga as a discipline to quiet the fluctuations of the mind to achieve the union of mind, body, and spirit.[51] Panch kleshas (fivefold psychological afflictions) constitute the primary causes of disturbing mental equilibrium. They are

  • अविद्या | avidyā - ignorance of the ultimate reality.
  • अस्मिता | asmitā - egoism, a false sense of identification.
  • रागः - द्वेषः | rāgaḥ dveṣaḥ - attachment and aversion.
  • अभिनिवेशः | abhiniveśaḥ - clinging on to life for fear of the unknown.

अविद्यास्मितारागद्वेषाभिनिवेशाः क्लेशाः ।। २.३ ।।[52]avidyāsmitārāgadveṣābhiniveśāḥ kleśāḥ ।। 2.3 ।।

Vyadhi, a state of non-health, is the opposite of samadhi.[53] Yoga Vasishtha describes psychosomatic (adhija vyadhi) as well as non-psychosomatic ailments (anadhija vyadhi). Samanya adhija vyadhi is described as those arising from day-to-day causes, while sara adhija vyadhi is the essential disease as a result of birth-rebirth cycle (congenital disease). Kleshas and antarayas (nine obstacles to integrative oneness), therefore, are the reasons underlying chitta vikshepa (disturbances in mind).[49][54]

The Yogic view of health and disease highlights that the root cause of physical ailments and disorders arises out from the mind. As per Yoga, adhi (the disturbed mind) is the cause, while vyadhi (the physical disease) represents the manifested effect. In other words, a disorder evolves from psychic manifestation to psychosomatic to somatic and eventually to the organic or the physical form affecting the panchakoshas on the way.[49][54]

Health and Well-Being in Ayurveda[1]

Originating in India, Ayurveda is one of the oldest systems of traditional medicine in the world and has been practiced in the Indian subcontinent since 5000 BC.[55] The term Ayurveda has its roots in the Sanskrit language and is comprised of two words Ayu (life) and Veda (knowledge) and is concerned with health and well-being.[56][57] Further, Ayurveda lays down the path of living that is directed by the three pursuits:

  1. Praneshana ie. desire to lead a long healthy life
  2. Dhaneshana ie. desire to savor financial and material security
  3. Paralokeshana ie. desire to attain happiness in the life hereafter.[58]

It focuses on the salutary and unsalutary facets of life to promote the ways that would be beneficial to lead a happy and nurturing life.

Ayurveda defines a healthy individual as

“One who is established in Self, who has balanced doshas, balanced agni, properly form dhatus, proper elimination of malas, well-functioning bodily processes and whose mind, soul, and senses are full of bliss, is called a healthy person”[59]

समदोषः समाग्निश्च समधातुमलक्रियाः । प्रसन्नात्मेन्द्रियमनः स्वस्थ इत्यभिधीयते ॥[60] (Sushruta Samhita, 15.38)

samadoṣaḥ samāgniśca samadhātumalakriyāḥ । prasannātmendriyamanaḥ svastha ityabhidhīyate ॥

Health as per Ayurveda is Svastha, a Sanskrit term that means "stability in the true self", a state of complete, balanced, physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.[61][62] This is in line with United Nations’ WHO’s definition of health[63] as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.[64]

As mentioned before, the salutogenic paradigm perceives health as the presence of positive human capabilities and optimal functioning. Aligned to this view, Ayurveda posits a positive view of health encompassing thoughts, feelings, and an overall state of being. It views health as a form of internal regulatory system to attain and maintain ideal health via adequate and orderly balance of the coherent collection of elements underlying the constitution of an individual. On the contrary, an illness signifies aberration in the regulatory system leading to a less than ideal state. Ayurveda also prescribes the way to health, i.e., swasthavrtta, a personalized healthy conduct appropriate to an individual that comprises of medicinal herbs, diet and nutrition, lifestyle, self-awareness, and harmony and accordance with other people and the nature. Further, Ayurveda shares its aim with salutogenesis to create positive health, where the focus is on developing positive capabilities to improve state of health and in which the existence of an illness doesn’t eliminate experiencing a state of well-being.[65]

With its holistic orientation, early diagnosis, and personalized treatment, Ayurveda aims not only to cure diseases but also to prevent them, maintain health, and promote longevity.[66][67] Accordingly, Ayurveda seems to share substantial similarities with the innovative approach of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM). [68]

Further, Ayurveda focuses on a wide spectrum of aspects, namely, biological, ecological, medical, psychological, sociocultural, spiritual, and metaphysical that constitute the determinants of health, and emphasizes the concept of relationship as the bedrock that interconnects the determinants. The mutual existence and integration of these determinants with all their complexity make way for the emergence of what is known as health. As a result, this comprehensive system aims at an individual’s whole bio-psycho-spiritual equilibrium.[65]

Well-Being from Yogic and Ayurvedic Perspectives[1]

A discussion on gunas, tridoshas and their subtle counterparts prana, tejas, and ojas, and jiva highlight the fundamental concepts underlying well-being from Yogic and Ayurvedic perspectives. These fundamental concepts common to both Yoga and Ayurveda that are essential to understand well-being as per the two traditions are discussed in the article Yoga and Ayurveda.

It is interesting to note that Ashtanga Yoga (eight limbed) offers the path to address the multifacets of well-being.

  • Yama and niyama (ethics pertaining to the internal and external world) are not premised on moral judgments; instead, they seek to gain control and quiet the disturbances and fluctuation of the overly active mind, regulate emotions, and promote socially benevolent behaviors.[69]
  • Asanas (postures) facilitate physical control of the body to prepare for controlling the mind so that an individual can meditate for extended duration of time.[8] Evidence supports the link between posture, emotion, and mental health.[70][71]
  • Pranayama allows for the free flow of prana, i.e., the lifesustaining breath to downregulate arousal and enhance awareness of the bodymind interaction.[72]
  • The next three limbs comprising of pratyahara, dharana, and dhyana involve control of sensory input, sustained concentration, and meditation to minimize distractions and mind wandering.[73] This culminates into a state of complete integration (samadhi), i.e., holistic well-being.

Yoga renders

  1. Physiological benefits in terms of better functioning of musculoskeletal, cardiopulmonary, autonomic nervous, and endocrine systems.
  2. Psychological effects in the form of augmented coping, self-efficacy, and upbeat mood.
  3. Spiritual benefits with respect to acceptance and mindful awareness.[74]

Similarly, a close examination of the above description draws attention to Ayurveda’s consideration of multiple aspects of well-being,[75] in other words, complete well-being.

  • For physical well-being, it aims at maintaining a balance of the three doshas, dhatus (tissues), agni (life essential internal fire), and the wastes. All these are elements vital for the physical well-being of an individual.
  • Concerning mental well-being, the objective of Ayurveda is to have pleasant sensory organs (jnanendriya and karmendriya), calm and steady mind, prevalence of sattva guna, and control over the Arishadvarga:[76] kama (lust), krodha (anger), lobha (greed), moha (attachment), mada (pride), and matsarya (jealousy).
  • Ayurveda also addresses social and spiritual well-being by emphasizing on relationships, i.e., the deep connections that exist between microcosm and macrocosm,[65] and the prime significance of the transcendent.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 C. Dagar & A. Pandey (2020), Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda, S. Dhiman (ed.), The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Well-Being.
  2. ↑ Veenhoven R (2015), Happiness: history of the concept, Wright J (ed), International encyclopedia of social and behavioral sciences, 2nd edn, vol 10. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 521–525.
  3. ↑ Ricard M (2013), A buddhist view of happiness, David SA, Boniwell I, Ayers AC (eds), Oxford handbook of happiness, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, pp 344–356.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Haidt J (2006), The happiness hypothesis: finding modern truth in ancient wisdom, New York: Basic Books.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Hone LC, Jarden A, Schofield GM, Duncan S (2014) , Measuring flourishing: the impact of operational definitions on the prevalence of high levels of wellbeing, Int J Wellbeing 4(1):62–90.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Keyes CL (2002), The mental health continuum: from languishing to flourishing in life, J Health Soc Behav 43:207–222.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Seligman ME (2011), Flourish: a visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being, (1st free press hardcover ed). New York: Free Press.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Feuerstein G (2011), The encyclopedia of yoga and tantra, Boston, Shambhala.
  9. ↑ Wujastyk D (2003), The roots of Āyurveda: selections from Sanskrit medical writings, London: Penguin Books.
  10. ↑ Atreya (2002), Perfect balance: Ayurvedic nutrition for mind, body, and soul, New York: Penguin Penguin Putnam Inc.
  11. ↑ Rioux J (2014), Whole-systems Ayurveda and yoga therapy for obesity: complete outcomes of a pilot study, J Altern Complement Med 20(5):A145–A146.
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  19. ↑ Keyes CL (2007), Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: a complementary strategy for improving national mental health, Am Psychol 62(2):95.
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  23. ↑ Park N, Peterson C (2006), Moral competence and character strengths among adolescents: the development and validation of the values in action inventory of strengths for youth, J Adolescence 29(6):891–909.
  24. ↑ Huppert FA, So TC (2013), Flourishing across Europe: application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being, Soc Indic Res 110(3):837–861.
  25. ↑ Diener E, Wirtz D, Tov W, Kim-Prieto C, Choi DW, Oishi S, Biswas-Diener R (2010), New wellbeing measures: short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings, Soc Indic Res 97(2):143–156.
  26. ↑ Judge TA, Thoresen CJ, Bono JE, Patton GK (2001), The job satisfaction–job performance relationship: a qualitative and quantitative review, Psychol Bull 127(3):376.
  27. ↑ Ryan RM, Deci EL (2001), On happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, Annu Rev Psychol 52(1):141–166.
  28. ↑ Forgas JP (ed) (2001), The handbook of affect and social cognition, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, Mahwah.
  29. ↑ Isen AM (1987), Positive affect, cognitive processes and social behaviour, Berkowitz L (ed) Advances in experimental social psychology, vol 20. Academic, New York, pp 203–253.
  30. ↑ Forgas JP (2002), Feeling and doing: affective influences on interpersonal behavior, Psychol Inq 13(1):1–28.
  31. ↑ Forgas JP (ed) (2006), Affect in social thinking and behaviour, New York: Psychology Press.
  32. ↑ Sedikides C (1995), Central and peripheral self-conceptions are differentially influenced by mood: tests of the differential sensitivity hypothesis, J Pers Soc Psychol 69:759–777.
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