Brahmana Dharma (ब्राह्मणधर्मः)

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

According to Manusmrti,

अध्यापनम् अध्ययनं यजनं याजनं तथा । दानं प्रतिग्रहं चैव ब्राह्मणानाम् अकल्पयत् । । १.८८ । ।

adhyāpanam adhyayanaṁ yajanaṁ yājanaṁ tathā । dānaṁ pratigrahaṁ caiva brāhmaṇānām akalpayat । । 1.88 । ।

Meaning: Studying, teaching, performing a sacrifice (either for oneself or for others), giving and accepting charity; these six are the responsibilities assigned to brahmanas (Manu Smrt. 1.88) Talking of the importance of adhering to the Brahmana varna dharma, Manusmrti says,

आचारः परमो धर्मः श्रुत्युक्तः स्मार्त एव च । तस्मादस्मिन्सदा युक्तो नित्यं स्यादात्मवान्द्विजः । । १.१०८ । ।

ācāraḥ paramo dharmaḥ śrutyuktaḥ smārta eva ca । tasmādasminsadā yukto nityaṁ syādātmavāndvijaḥ । । 1.108 । ।

Meaning: The Shrutis and Smrtis say that code of conduct is the highest duty; hence brahmanas must always be ready in adering to it (Manu Smrt. 1.108) It says, a Brahmana who studies the shastras faithfully, according to the rules, is never tainted by sins arising from thoughts, words or deeds (Manu Smrt. 1.104). While, the one who deflects from his prescribed duties, doesn't obtain the fruit prescribed in the vedas; one who adheres to the code of conduct partakes in the fruit (Manu Smrt. 1.109)

इदं शास्त्रम् अधीयानो ब्राह्मणः शंसितव्रतः । मनोवाग्गेहजैर्नित्यं कर्मदोषैर्न लिप्यते । । १.१०४ । ।

आचाराद्विच्युतो विप्रो न वेदफलम् अश्नुते । आचारेण तु संयुक्तः सम्पूर्णफलभाग्भवेत् । । १.१०९ । ।

idaṁ śāstram adhīyāno brāhmaṇaḥ śaṁsitavrataḥ । manovāggehajairnityaṁ karmadoṣairna lipyate । । 1.104 । ।

ācārādvicyuto vipro na vedaphalam aśnute । ācāreṇa tu saṁyuktaḥ sampūrṇaphalabhāgbhavet । । 1.109 ।

विहितोपजीविकाः ॥ Prescribed Modes of Subsistence

• It is said that a brahmana may subsist by Rta (truth), and Amrta (ambrosia), or by Mrta (death) and by Pramrta (what causes many deaths); or even by (the mode) called Satyanrta (a mixture of truth and falsehood), but never by Shvavrtti (a dog’s mode of life). [v.4.4.]

ऋतामृताभ्यां जीवेत्तु मृतेन प्रमृतेन वा । सत्यानृताभ्यां अपि वा न श्ववृत्त्या कदा चन । । ४.४ । ।

r̥tāmr̥tābhyāṁ jīvettu mr̥tena pramr̥tena vā । satyānr̥tābhyāṁ api vā na śvavr̥ttyā kadā cana । । 4.4 । ।

• By Rta shall be understood the gleaning of corn; by Amrta, what is given unasked; by Mrta, food obtained by begging and agriculture is declared to be Pramrta. [v.4.5.] But trade and (money-lending) are Satyanrta, even by that one may subsist. Service is called Shvavritti; therefore one should avoid it. [v.4.6.]

ऋतं उञ्छशिलं ज्ञेयं अमृतं स्यादयाचितम् । मृतं तु याचितं भैक्षं प्रमृतं कर्षणं स्मृतम् । । ४.५ । ।

सत्यानृतं तु वाणिज्यं तेन चैवापि जीव्यते । सेवा श्ववृत्तिराख्याता तस्मात्तां परिवर्जयेत् । । ४.६ । ।

r̥taṁ uñchaśilaṁ jñeyaṁ amr̥taṁ syādayācitam । mr̥taṁ tu yācitaṁ bhaikṣaṁ pramr̥taṁ karṣaṇaṁ smr̥tam । । 4.5 । ।

satyānr̥taṁ tu vāṇijyaṁ tena caivāpi jīvyate । sevā śvavr̥ttirākhyātā tasmāttāṁ parivarjayet । । 4.6 । ।

• He may either possess enough to fill a granary, or a store filling a grain-jar; or he may collect what suffices for three days, or make no provision for the morrow. [v.4.7.]Moreover, among these four Brahmana householders, each later(-named) must be considered more distinguished, and through his virtue to have conquered the world more completely. [v.4.8.]One of these follows six occupations, another subsists by three, one by two, but the fourth lives by the Brahmasattra. [v.4.9.]

कुसूलधान्यको वा स्यात्कुम्भीधान्यक एव वा । त्र्यहैहिको वापि भवेदश्वस्तनिक एव वा । । ४.७ । ।

चतुर्णां अपि चैतेषां द्विजानां गृहमेधिनाम् । ज्यायान्परः परो ज्ञेयो धर्मतो लोकजित्तमः । । ४.८ । ।

षट्कर्मैको भवत्येषां त्रिभिरन्यः प्रवर्तते । द्वाभ्यां एकश्चतुर्थस्तु ब्रह्मसत्त्रेण जीवति । । ४.९ । ।

kusūladhānyako vā syātkumbhīdhānyaka eva vā । tryahaihiko vāpi bhavedaśvastanika eva vā । । 4.7 । ।

caturṇāṁ api caiteṣāṁ dvijānāṁ gr̥hamedhinām । jyāyānparaḥ paro jñeyo dharmato lokajittamaḥ । । 4.8 । ।

ṣaṭkarmaiko bhavatyeṣāṁ tribhiranyaḥ pravartate । dvābhyāṁ ekaścaturthastu brahmasattreṇa jīvati । । 4.9 । ।

उपजीविकानियमाः ॥ Rules Regarding Subsistence

A Brahmana shall not name his family and (Vedic) gotra in order to obtain a meal; for he who boasts of them for the sake of a meal, is called by the wise a foul feeder (vantasin). [v.3.109.]

न भोजनार्थं स्वे विप्रः कुलगोत्रे निवेदयेत् । भोजनार्थं हि ते शंसन्वान्ताशीत्युच्यते बुधैः । । ३.१०९ । ।

na bhojanārthaṁ sve vipraḥ kulagotre nivedayet । bhojanārthaṁ hi te śaṁsanvāntāśītyucyate budhaiḥ । । 3.109 । ।

A Brahmana must seek a means of subsistence which either causes no, or at least little pain (to others), and live (by that) except in times of distress. [v.4.2.]

अद्रोहेणैव भूतानां अल्पद्रोहेण वा पुनः । या वृत्तिस्तां समास्थाय विप्रो जीवेदनापदि । । ४.२ । ।

adroheṇaiva bhūtānāṁ alpadroheṇa vā punaḥ । yā vr̥ttistāṁ samāsthāya vipro jīvedanāpadi । । 4.2 । ।

For the purpose of gaining bare subsistence, let him accumulate property by (following those) irreproachable occupations (which are prescribed for) his (caste), without (unduly) fatiguing his body. [v.4.3.]

यात्रामात्रप्रसिद्ध्यर्थं स्वैः कर्मभिरगर्हितैः । अक्लेशेन शरीरस्य कुर्वीत धनसंचयम् । । ४.३ । ।

yātrāmātraprasiddhyarthaṁ svaiḥ karmabhiragarhitaiḥ । akleśena śarīrasya kurvīta dhanasaṁcayam । । 4.3 । ।

At the same time, it is also adviced that he who maintains himself by picking up grains and ears of corn, must be always intent on (the performance of) the Agnihotra, and constantly offer those Ishtis only, which are prescribed for the days of the conjunction and opposition (of the moon), and for the solstices. [v.4.10.] Let him never, for the sake of subsistence, follow the ways of the world; let him live the pure, straightforward, honest life of a Brahmana. [v.4.11.]And he who desires happiness is adviced to strive after a perfectly contented disposition and control himself; for happiness has contentment for its root, the root of unhappiness is the contrary (disposition). [v.4.12.]

वर्तयंश्च शिलोञ्छाभ्यां अग्निहोत्रपरायणः । इष्टीः पार्वायणान्तीयाः केवला निर्वपेत्सदा । । ४.१० । ।

न लोकवृत्तं वर्तेत वृत्तिहेतोः कथं चन । अजिह्मां अशथां शुद्धां जीवेद्ब्राह्मणजीविकाम् । । ४.११ । ।

संतोषं परं आस्थाय सुखार्थी संयतो भवेत् । संतोषमूलं हि सुखं दुःखमूलं विपर्ययः । । ४.१२ । ।

vartayaṁśca śiloñchābhyāṁ agnihotraparāyaṇaḥ । iṣṭīḥ pārvāyaṇāntīyāḥ kevalā nirvapetsadā । । 4.10 । ।

na lokavr̥ttaṁ varteta vr̥ttihetoḥ kathaṁ cana । ajihmāṁ aśathāṁ śuddhāṁ jīvedbrāhmaṇajīvikām । । 4.11 । ।

saṁtoṣaṁ paraṁ āsthāya sukhārthī saṁyato bhavet । saṁtoṣamūlaṁ hi sukhaṁ duḥkhamūlaṁ viparyayaḥ । । 4.12 । ।

स्नातक: || Snataka

Vachaspatya describes a Snataka as follows:

वेदाध्ययनानन्तरं गार्हस्थ्याय कृतसमावर्त्तनांङ्गस्नाने गृहस्थभेदे |

vedādhyayanānantaraṁ gārhasthyāya kr̥tasamāvarttanāṁṅgasnāne gr̥hasthabhede |

It refers to a brahmana who, after having completed the study of the Vedas, has entered the Grhasthashrama after performing the rite of Samavartana which is an abulation that indicates the graduation from brahmacharya to grhastha. However, according to Shabdakalpadruma,

ब्रह्मचर्य्यं त्यक्त्वा यो गृहाश्रमं गतः स स्नातकः । समाप्तवेदाध्ययनो यः स्नानशीलः आश्रमान्तरं न गतः सौऽपि स्नातकः ।

brahmacaryyaṁ tyaktvā yo gr̥hāśramaṁ gataḥ sa snātakaḥ । samāptavedādhyayano yaḥ snānaśīlaḥ āśramāntaraṁ na gataḥ sau'pi snātakaḥ ।

It says, The one who abandons brahmacharya and goes to grhasthashrama is a Snataka. But, after having competed the Vedic studies, the one who is eligible for the ritual abulation but does not enter the grhasthashrama is also a Snataka. Because, Snataka is of three types.

• व्रतस्नातकः ॥ Vrata Snataka

ब्रह्मचर्य्याचरणस्य यः शास्त्रबोधितोऽवधिः । तावद्वेदमुपास्यासमाप्तवेद एवाश्रमान्तरं गतो यः स व्रतस्नातकः ।

brahmacaryyācaraṇasya yaḥ śāstrabodhito'vadhiḥ । tāvadvedamupāsyāsamāptaveda evāśramāntaraṁ gato yaḥ sa vratasnātakaḥ ।

The one who enters the Grhasthashrama, studying the vedas only for the stipulated time prescribed by the shastras for the brahmacharyashrama, without completion, is a Vrata Snataka.

• विद्यास्नातकः || Vidya Snataka

वेदमधीत्यगुरुसन्निधौ वेदाभ्यासं यः करोति स विद्यास्नातकः ।

vedamadhītyagurusannidhau vedābhyāsaṁ yaḥ karoti sa vidyāsnātakaḥ ।

The one who continues to stay with his Guru and study the Vedas even after the stipulated time is called a Vidya Snataka.

• उभयस्नातकः || Ubhaya Snataka

पालितसम्यग्व्रतः प्राप्तवेदो यो द्वितीयाश्रमं गतः स उभयस्नातकः ।

pālitasamyagvrataḥ prāptavedo yo dvitīyāśramaṁ gataḥ sa ubhayasnātakaḥ ।

While, the one who observes the vow completely, absorbs the vedic teachings and graduates to the second ashrama is called Ubhaya Snataka.

स्नातकगुणोपदेशः ॥ Snataka Guna Upadesha

The Manusmrti implores a Brahmana, who is a Snataka and subsists by one of the (above-mentioned) modes of life, to discharge the (following) duties which secure heavenly bliss, long life, and fame. [v.4.13.]

अतोऽन्यतमया वृत्त्या जीवंस्तु स्नातको द्विजः । स्वर्गायुष्ययशस्यानि व्रताणीमानि धारयेत् । । ४.१३ । ।

ato'nyatamayā vr̥ttyā jīvaṁstu snātako dvijaḥ । svargāyuṣyayaśasyāni vratāṇīmāni dhārayet । । 4.13 । ।

According to the Bhagavad Gita there are nine qualities of a brahmana.

शमो दमस्तपः शौचं क्षान्तिरार्जवमेव च । ज्ञानं विज्ञानमास्तिक्यं ब्रह्मकर्म स्वभावजम् ॥१८- ४२॥

śamo damastapaḥ śaucaṁ kṣāntirārjavameva ca । jñānaṁ vijñānamāstikyaṁ brahmakarma svabhāvajam ॥18- 42॥

ie. peacefulness, self-control, austerity, purity, tolerance, honesty, knowledge, wisdom, religiousness

The Manusmrti enforces the adherence to these qualities in the life of a Snataka subsisting through different means of livelihood. Some of the guidelines given in this regard, to help adhere to certain good qualities are as follows.

Non-attachment

The foremost among the qualities to be fostered is Non attachment. In this regard it is said,

• Whether he be rich or even in distress, let him not seek wealth through pursuits to which men cleave, nor by forbidden occupations, nor (let him accept presents) from any (giver whosoever he may be). [v.4.15.]

• Let him not, out of desire (for enjoyments), attach himself to any sensual pleasures, and let him carefully obviate an excessive attachment to them, by (reflecting on their worthlessness in) his heart. [v.4.16.]

स्नातकधर्माः ॥ The Duties of a Snataka

वेदाभ्यासः ॥ Studying the Vedas

~Keeping his hair, nails, and beard clipped, subduing his passions by austerities, wearing white garments and (keeping himself) pure, he shall be always engaged in studying the Veda and (such acts as are) conducive to his welfare. [v.4.35.]

Let him avoid all (means of acquiring) wealth which impede the study of the Veda; (let him maintain himself) anyhow, but study, because that (devotion to the Veda-study secures) the realisation of his aims. [v.4.17.]

~Let him walk here (on earth), bringing his dress, speech, and thoughts to a conformity with his age, his occupation, his wealth, his sacred learning, and his race. [v.4.18.]

Let him daily pore over those Institutes of science which soon give increase of wisdom, those which teach the acquisition of wealth, those which are beneficial (for other worldly concerns), and likewise over the Nigamas which explain the Veda. [v.4.19.]

For the more a man completely studies the Institutes of science, the more he fully understands (them), and his great learning shines brightly. [v.4.20.]

अनध्ययनम् ॥

Let him who studies always avoid (reading) on the following occasions when the Veda-study is forbidden, and (let) him who teaches pupils according to the prescribed rule (do it likewise). [v.4.101.]

Those who know the (rules of) recitation declare that in the rainy season the Veda-study must be stopped on these two (occasions), when the wind is audible at night, and when it whirls up the dust in the day-time. [v.4.102.]

Manu has stated, that when lightning, thunder, and rain (are observed together), or when large fiery meteors fall on all sides, the recitation must be interrupted until the same hour (on the next day, counting from the occurrence of the event). [v.4.103.]

When one perceives these (phenomena) all together (in the twilight), after the sacred fires have been made to blaze (for the performance of the Agnihotra), then one must know the recitation of the Veda to be forbidden, and also when clouds appear out of season. [v.4.104.]

On (the occasion of) a preternatural sound from the sky, (of) an earthquake, and when the lights of heaven are surrounded by a halo, let him know that (the Veda-study must be) stopped until the same hour (on the next day), even if (these phenomena happen) in the (rainy) season. [v.4.105.]

But when lightning and the roar of thunder (are observed) after the sacred fires have been made to blaze, the stoppage shall last as long as the light (of the sun or of the stars is visible); if the remaining (above-named phenomenon, rain, occurs, the reading shall cease), both in the day-time and at night. [v.4.106.]

For those who wish to acquire exceedingiy great merit, a continual interruption of the Veda-study (is prescribed) in villages and in towns, and (the Veda-study must) always (cease) when any kind of foul smell (is perceptible). [v.4.107.]

In water, during the middle part of the night, while he voids excrements, or is impure, and after he has partaken of a funeral dinner, a man must not even think in his heart (of the sacred texts). [v.4.109.]

A learned Brahmana shall not recite the Veda during three days, when he has accepted an invitation to a (funeral rite) in honour of one ancestor (ekoddishta), or when the king has become impure through a birth or death in his family (sutaka), or when Rahu by an eclipse makes the moon impure. [v.4.110.]

As long as the smell and the stains of the (food given) in honour of one ancestor remain on the body of a learned Brahmana, so long he must not recite the Veda. [v.4.111.]

While lying on a bed, while his feet are raised (on a bench), while he sits on his hams with a cloth tied round his knees, let him not study, nor when he has eaten meat or food given by a person impure on account of a birth or a death, [v.4.112.]

Nor during a fog, nor while the sound of arrows is audible, nor during both the twilights, nor on the new-moon day, nor on the fourteenth and the eighth (days of each half-month), nor on the full-moon day.[v.4.113.]

The new-moon day destroys the teacher, the fourteenth (day) the pupil, the eighth and the full-moon days (destroy all remembrance of) the Veda; let him therefore avoid (reading on) those (days). [v.4.114.]

A Brahmana shall not recite (the Veda) during a dust-storm, nor while the sky is preternaturally red, nor while jackals howl, nor while the barking of dogs, the braying of donkeys, or the grunting of camels (is heard), nor while (he is seated) in a company. [v.4.115.]

Let him not study near a burial-ground, nor near a village, nor in a cow-pen, nor dressed in a garment which he wore during conjugal intercourse, nor after receiving a present at a funeral sacrifice. [v.4.116.]

Be it an animal or a thing inanimate, whatever be the (gift) at a Shraddha, let him not, having just accepted it, recite the Veda; for the hand of a Brahmana is his mouth. [v.4.117.]

When the village has been beset by robbers, and when an alarm has been raised by fire, let him know that (the Veda-study must be) interrupted until the same hour (on the next day), and on (the occurrence of) all portents. [v.4.118.]

On (the occasion of) the Upakarman and (of) the Vedotsarga an omission (of the Veda-study) for three days has been prescribed, but on the Ashtakas and on the last nights of the seasons for a day and a night. [v.4.119.]

Let him not recite the Veda on horseback, nor on a tree, nor on an elephant, nor in a boat (or ship), nor on a donkey, nor on camel, nor standing on barren ground, nor riding in a carriage, [v.4.120.]

Nor during a verbal altercation, nor during a mutual assault, nor in a camp, nor during a battle, nor when he has just eaten, nor during an indigestion, nor after vomiting, nor with sour eructations, [v.4.121.]

Nor without receiving permission from a guest (who stays in his house), nor while the wind blows vehemently, nor while blood flows from his body, nor when he is wounded by a weapon.[v.4.122.]

Let him never recite the Rig-veda or the Yagur-veda while the Saman (melodies) are heard; (let him stop all Veda-study for a day and a night) after finishing a Veda or after reciting an Aranyaka. [v.4.123.]

Know that (the Veda-study must be) interrupted for a day and a night, when cattle, a frog, a cat, a dog, a snake, an ichneumon, or a rat pass between (the teacher and his pupil). [v.4.126.]

Let a twice-born man always carefully interrupt the Veda-study on two (occasions, viz.) when the place where he recites is impure, and when he himself is unpurified. [v.4.127.]

यज्ञकर्माणि ॥ Performing Yajnas

Let him never, if he is able (to perform them), neglect the sacrifices to the sages, to the gods, to the Bhutas, to men, and to the manes. [v.4.21.]

Some men who know the ordinances for sacrificial rites, always offer these great sacrifices in their organs (of sensation), without any (external) effort. [v.4.22.] Knowing that the (performance of the) sacrifice in their speech and their breath yields imperishable (rewards), some always offer their breath in their speech, and their speech in their breath. [v.4.23.]

Other Brahmanas, seeing with the eye of knowledge that the performance of those rites has knowledge for its root, always perform them through knowledge alone. [v.4.24.]

A Brahmana shall always offer the Agnihotra at the beginning or at the end of the day and of the night, and the Darsa and Paurnamasa (Ishtis) at the end of each half-month, [v.4.25.]

Let him always offer on the Parva-days oblations to Savitri and such as avert evil omens, and on the Ashtakas and Anvashtakas let him constantly worship the manes. [v.4.150.]

भिक्षा ॥ Begging for Alms

A Snataka who pines with hunger, may beg wealth of a king, of one for whom he sacrifices, and of a pupil, but not of others; that is a settled rule. [v.4.33.]

A Snataka who is able (to procure food) shall never waste himself with hunger, nor shall he wear old or dirty clothes, if he possesses property. [v.4.34.]

A king is declared to be equal (in wickedness) to a butcher who keeps a hundred thousand slaughter-houses; to accept presents from him is a terrible (crime). [v.4.86.] He who accepts presents from an avaricious king who acts contrary to the Institutes (of the sacred law), will go in succession to the following twenty-one hells: [v.4.87.]

Learned Brahmanas, who know that, who study the Veda and desire bliss after death, do not accept presents from a king. [v.4.91.]

विधिताचाराः ॥ Vidhita Achara

10.6 Miscellaneous rules of cleanliness, purity and respect

Let him wake in the muhurta, sacred to Brahman, and think of (the acquisition of) spiritual merit and wealth, of the bodily fatigue arising therefrom, and of the true meaning of the Veda. [v.4.92.]

When he has risen, has relieved the necessities of nature and carefully purified himself, let him stand during the morning twilight, muttering for a long time (the Gayatri), and at the proper time (he must similarly perform) the evening (devotion). [v.4.93.]

By prolonging the twilight devotions, the sages obtained long life, wisdom, honour, fame, and excellence in Vedic knowledge. [v.4.94.]

Having performed the Upakarman according to the prescribed rule on (the full moon of the month) Sravana, or on that of Praushthapada (Bhadrapada), a Brahmana shall diligently study the Vedas during four months and a half. [v.4.95.]

When the Pushya-day (of the month Pausha), or the first day of the bright half of Magha has come, a Brahmana shall perform in the forenoon the Utsargana of the Vedas. [v.4.96.]

Having performed the Utsarga outside (the village), as the Institutes (of the sacred law) prescribe, he shall stop reading during two days and the intervening night, or during that day (of the Utsarga) and (the following) night. [v.4.97.]

Afterwards he shall diligently recite the Vedas during the bright (halves of the months), and duly study all the Angas of the Vedas during the dark fortnights. [v.4.98.]

According to the rule declared above, let him recite the daily (portion of the) Mantras, and a zealous Brahmana, (who is) not in distress, (shall study) the Brahmana and the Mantrasamhita. [v.4.100.]

He shall carry a staff of bamboo, a pot full of water, a sacred string, a bundle of Kusa grass, and (wear) two bright golden ear-rings. [v.4.36.]

Let him never look at the sun, when he sets or rises, is eclipsed or reflected in water, or stands in the middle of the sky. [v.4.37.]

Let him not step over a rope to which a calf is tied, let him not run when it rains, and let him not look at his own image in water; that is a settled rule. [v.4.38.]

Let him pass by (a mound of) earth, a cow, a Deity, a Brahmana, clarified butter, honey, a crossway, and well-known trees, turning his right hand towards them. [v.4.39.]

Let him, though mad with desire, not approach his wife when her courses appear; nor let him sleep with her in the same bed. [v.4.40.] For the wisdom, the energy, the strength, the sight, and the vitality of a man who approaches a woman covered with menstrual excretions, utterly perish. [v.4.41.] If he avoids her, while she is in that condition, his wisdom, energy, strength, sight, and vitality will increase. [v.4.42.]

Let him not eat, dressed with one garment only; let him not bathe naked; let him not void urine on a road, on ashes, or in a cow-pen, [v.4.45.] Nor on ploughed land, in water, on an altar of bricks, on a mountain, on the ruins of a temple, nor ever on an ant-hill, [v.4.46.] Nor in holes inhabited by living creatures, nor while he walks or stands, nor on reaching the bank of a river, nor on the top of a mountain. [v.4.47.]

Let him never void faeces or urine, facing the wind, or a fire, or looking towards a Brahmana, the sun, water, or cows. [v.4.48.] He may ease himself, having covered (the ground) with sticks, clods, leaves, grass, and the like, restraining his speech, (keeping himself) pure, wrapping up his body, and covering his head. [v.4.49.] The intellect of (a man) who voids urine against a fire, the sun, the moon, in water, against a Brahmana, a cow, or the wind, perishes. [v.4.52.]

Let him not throw urine or faeces into the water, nor saliva, nor (clothes) defiled by impure substances, nor any other (impurity), nor blood, nor poisonous things. [v.4.56.]

Let him not place (fire) under (a bed or the like); nor step over it, nor place it (when he sleeps) at the foot-(end of his bed); let him not torment living creatures. [v.4.54.]

Let him not eat, nor travel, nor sleep during the twilight; let him not scratch the ground; let him not take off his garland. [v.4.55.]

~Let him keep his right arm uncovered in a place where a sacred fire is kept, in a cow-pen, in the presence of Brahmanas, during the private recitation of the Veda, and at meals. [v.4.58.]

Let him not interrupt a cow who is suckling (her calf), nor tell anybody of it. A wise man, if he sees a rainbow in the sky, must not point it out to anybody. [v.4.59.] Let him not dwell in a village where the sacred law is not obeyed, nor (stay) long where diseases are endemic; let him not go alone on a journey, nor reside long on a mountain. [v.4.60.]

Let him not eat anything from which the oil has been extracted; let him not be a glutton; let him not eat very early (in the morning), nor very late (in the evening), nor (take any food) in the evening, if he has eaten (his fill) in the morning. [v.4.62.]

Let him not exert himself without a purpose; let him not drink water out of his joined palms; let him not eat food (placed) in his lap; let him not show (idle) curiosity. [v.4.63.]

Let him never wash his feet in a vessel of white brass; let him not eat out of a broken (earthen) dish, nor out of one that (to judge) from its appearance (is) defiled. [v.4.65.]

Let him not use shoes, garments, a sacred string, ornaments, a garland, or a water-vessel which have been used by others. [v.4.66.]

Let him not travel with untrained beasts of burden, nor with (animals) that are tormented by hunger or disease, or whose horns, eyes, and hoofs have been injured, or whose tails have been disfigured. [v.4.67.]

Let him always travel with (beasts) which are well broken in, swift, endowed with lucky marks, and perfect in colour and form, without urging them much with the goad. [v.4.68.]

The morning sun, the smoke rising from a (burning) corpse, and a broken seat must be avoided. Let him not clip his nails or hair, and not tear his nails with his teeth. [v.4.69.]

Let him not crush earth or clods, nor tear off grass with his nails; let him not do anything that is useless or will have disagreeable results in the future. [v.4.70.]

A man who crushes clods, tears off grass, or bites his nails, goes soon to perdition, likewise an informer and he who neglects (the rules of) purification. [v.4.71.]

Let him not wrangle; let him not wear a garland over (his hair). To ride on the back of cows (or of oxen) is anyhow a blameable act. [v.4.72.]

Let him not enter a walled village or house except by the gate, and by night let him keep at a long distance from the roots of trees. [v.4.73.]

Let him never play with dice, nor himself take off his shoes; let him not eat, lying on a bed, nor what has been placed in his hand or on a seat. [v.4.74.] ~Let him not eat after sunset any (food) containing sesamum grains; let him never sleep naked, nor go anywhere unpurified (after meals). [v.4.75.]

~Let him eat while his feet are (yet) wet (from the ablution), but let him not go to bed with wet feet. He who eats while his feet are (still) wet, will attain long life. [v.4.76.]

Let him never enter a place, difficult of access, which is impervious to his eye; let him not look at urine or ordure, nor cross a river (swimming) with his arms. [v.4.77.]

Let him not step on hair, ashes, bones, potsherds, cotton-seed or chaff, if he desires long life. [v.4.78.]

Let him not scratch his head with both hands joined; let him not touch it while he is impure, nor bathe without (submerging) it. [v.4.82.]

Let him avoid (in anger) to lay hold of (his own or other men’s) hair, or to strike (himself or others) on the head. When he has bathed (submerging) his head, he shall not touch any of his limbs with oil. [v.4.83.]

~A twice-born man who is a Snataka shall remain chaste on the new-moon day, on the eighth (lunar day of each half-month), on the full-moon day, and on the fourteenth, even (if they fall) in the period (proper for conjugal intercourse). [v.4.128.]

Let him not bathe (immediately) after a meal, nor when he is sick, nor in the middle of the night, nor frequently dressed in all his garments, nor in a pool which he does not perfectly know. [v.4.129.]

Let him not intentionally step on the shadow of (images of) the gods, of a Guru, of a king, of a Snataka, of his teacher, of a reddish-brown animal, or of one who has been initiated to the performance of a Shrauta sacrifice (Dikshita). [v.4.130.]

At midday and at midnight, after partaking of meat at a funeral dinner, and in the two twilights let him not stay long on a cross-road.[v.4.131.]

Let him not step intentionally on things used for cleansing the body, on water used for a bath, on urine or ordure, on blood, on mucus, and on anything spat out or vomited. [v.4.132.]

Let him not show particular attention to an enemy, to the friend of an enemy, to a wicked man, to a thief, or to the wife of another man. [v.4.133.]

For in this world there is nothing so detrimental to long life as criminal conversation with another man’s wife. [v.4.134.]

Let him who desires prosperity, indeed, never despise a Kshatriya, a snake, and a learned Brahmana, be they ever so feeble. [v.4.135.]

Because these three, when treated with disrespect, may utterly destroy him; hence a wise man must never despise them. [v.4.136.]

Let him not despise himself on account of former failures; until death let him seek fortune, nor despair of gaining it. [v.4.137.]

Let him say what is true, let him say what is pleasing, let him utter no disagreeable truth, and let him utter no agreeable falsehood; that is the eternal law. [v.4.138.]

(What is) well, let him call well, or let him say ‘well’ only; let him not engage in a useless enmity or dispute with anybody. [v.4.139.]

Let him not insult those who have redundant limbs or are deficient in limbs, nor those destitute of knowledge, nor very aged men, nor those who have no beauty or wealth, nor those who are of low birth. [v.4.141.]

A Brahmana who is impure must not touch with his hand a cow, a Brahmana, or fire; nor, being in good health, let him look at the luminaries in the sky, while he is impure. [v.4.142.] If he has touched these, while impure, let him always sprinkle with his hand water on the organs of sensation, all his limbs, and the navel. [v.4.143.]

Except when sick he must not touch the cavities (of the body) without a reason, and he must void (to touch) the hair on the secret (parts). [v.4.144.]

~Let him eagerly follow the (customs which are) auspicious and the rule of good conduct, be careful of purity, and control all his organs, let him mutter (prayers) and, untired, daily offer oblations in the fire. [v.4.145.]

~No calamity happens to those who eagerly follow auspicious customs and the rule of good conduct, to those who are always careful of purity, and to those who mutter (sacred texts) and offer burnt-oblations. [v.4.146.]10.7 The primary duty

Let him, without tiring, daily mutter the Veda at the proper time; for they declare that to be one’s highest duty; (all) other (observances) are called secondary duties. [v.4.147.]

By daily reciting the Veda, by (the observance of the rules of) purification, by practising) austerities, and by doing no injury to created beings, one (obtains the faculty of) remembering former births. [v.4.148.]

He who, recollecting his former existences, again recites the Veda, gains endless bliss by the continual study of the Veda. [v.4.149.]

Far from his dwelling let him remove urine (and ordure), far (let him remove) the water used for washing his feet, and far the remnants of food and the water from his bath. [v.4.151.]

Early in the morning only let him void faeces, decorate (his body), bathe, clean his teeth, apply collyrium to his eyes, and worship the gods. [v.4.152.]