Vidya (विद्या)

Education was regarded as the best agency for improving society at all times and hence focus was that it should be available to all those who are qualified to receive it. Upanayana was the samskara, that was usually performed, to mark the initiation of a child (of all varnas and both genders) into education. It was further declared in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad that

... विद्यया देवलोको देवलोको वै लोकाना श्रेष्ठस् तस्माद्विद्यां प्रशसन्ति ॥ यद्वै किञ्चानूक्तम् तस्य सर्वस्य ब्रह्मेत्येकता .... तस्मात् पुत्रमनुशिष्टं लोक्यमाहुस् तस्मादेनमनुशासति । (Brha. Upan. 1.5.16 and 17)

... vidyayā devaloko devaloko vai lokānā śreṣṭhas tasmādvidyāṁ praśasanti ॥ yadvai kiñcānūktam tasya sarvasya brahmetyekatā .... tasmāt putramanuśiṣṭaṁ lokyamāhus tasmādenamanuśāsati ।

One can attain the devaloka through vidya alone; devaloka being the best of the (three) worlds. Hence vidya is to be praised. (Here vidya is taken to mean meditation or that knowledge of Self required for attaining the higher worlds). Whatever is studied is all unified in the word Brahman.... Therefore they speak of an educated son as being conducive to the world. Hence (a father) teaches his son (Page No 230 of Reference ).

Thus we see that the goal of education is attainment of Self knowledge. Thus people of different varnas irrespective of their gender, social and financial status, received at least the rudiment of literary and religious education, until the first millennium of the Christian era when conducting upanayanas decreased among the varnas and girls were married at the age of 10 owing to several causes.

Subjects of Education

The word Vidya (विद्या), which again devoid of an English equivalent, deals with that procedural knowledge essential for understanding the philosophical and theological aspects of Sanatana Dharma. Ancient seers had holistic perspective as to why a student should be given the knowledge of Atmavidya in different forms such as Brahmavidya, Bhumavidya, Panchagnividya, each of which was one way to achieve the common goal of Moksha. It may appear that preceptors of the ancient ages have focused only on the ultimate spiritual goal of Atmavidya (attainment of the knowledge of the the Self) which is more a personal goal for the student.

However, one may note that education consisted of imparting Chaturdasha Vidyas (and Astadasha Vidyas) dealt in our Vaidika Vangmaya by Gurus to students before giving them the ultimate specialized knowledge, exemplified by many examples of Vedic preceptors even in the more recent millennium.

Vidya (knowledge), pertaining to a single knowledge system (Brahmavidya etc) of the olden days gradually got absorbed into Vedanta system, a broader heading covering all such specialized topics. Gradually as studying vedas required more understanding, the study of Shad Vedangas, the subjects explaining the Vedas themselves gained more significance. Some of the Vedangas such as Shiksha, Vyakarana, Jyotisha, became highly specialized themselves and needed years of study. Vidya (education) came to represent concept based knowledge systems of Shastras of all kinds. The Shad Vedangas, Shad Darshanas and Upavedas gave rise to many subjects such as Ganita (Mathematics), Nyaya (Judicial system) and Nyaya (Logic). Ayurveda ramified into minor specialisations with Shastrachikitsa and Kayachikitsa, Rasayana shastra dealt with chemistry, Bhoutika shastra included physics. The knowledge of alloys, metallurgy, geology, botany sciences, warfare, architecture, large scale constructions, all such topics developed over a period of time into professional subjects.

Goals of Education

We see in the cultures of ancient Greece and Europe that the ideal of personal culture loomed large in the educational system. Ancient Indian system, however, focused on the fact that an individual exists more for society than otherwise. From a very young age, a child is groomed into the socio-cultural fabric of the society with less emphasis on personal subjects such as music, painting and fine arts which were not taken as general education topics. Education was also not dominated by the military ideal hence it was not part of the mainstream topics.

Jesuitical education aimed at creating an army of faithful and resolute servants of the Catholic church, the goal of which was to establish missionaries and spread the religion. It may be clarified that Ancient Indian system of education colonially projected to be tainted with lines such as "Brahmanas controlled education", was never so narrow in aim, for the youth they trained often were not subservient unquestioning blind followers but often questioned the traditional beliefs and sought for the rationale in the system. Many new theories of Indian knowledge systems, and siddhantas of subjects stand proud witness to the fact that Indian education always promoted dynamic dharmik thought processes. Prabhakara Guru's school of Mimamsa developed as he believed in perspectives different from those of Kumarila Bhatta's Mimamsa theories and convincingly articulated them. The Vedic shakas themselves arose due to slight differences in pronunciation or arrangement of mantras which were preserved by the particular group of people. It is clear that no other nation had so many original, ingenious ideas, concepts and supporting explanations (vadas) as seen in the land of Bharatavarsha for a vast majority of subjects of study.

Ancients believed that education was primarily for piety and wisdom, virtue, manners and learning for a useful profession. The more recent education system of the Industrial Revolution age laid emphasis on building a robotic skilled worker, creating a mechanical workforce, working skillfully, justly in both public and private enterprises. Standardization and automatisation has further brought down creative thinking and ingenuity. However, our ancients gave more importance to personal capabilities and held that not all people are versatile in a particular skillset and thus differentiation of functions and training was enforced for different classes of people performing various duties.

Nations such as America which had a relatively recent national culture stressed on moral character and social efficiency (personal development) and not mere erudition and culture as the important goals of education system. Indian system had achieved these two (character and social efficiency) characteristics and hence sought to preserve the qualities by enforcing the cultural preservation.

Social fabric was well-knit in our ancient society system (Varna System) and different classes of people complemented each other in bringing about social efficiency. Thus ancient Indian education provided education to each class, suitable for its own needs and family traditions, without repressing talent, unlike the Soviet nations' system of education which directed education to bring about equality in the society by upliftment of the weaker sections. Modern education system in India brought in by the English Colonial rulers is dominated by the aim of passing examinations with highest honours; an aim which was practically non-existent in ancient India.

With this significant background about the ancient education system of India, we now look into that unique Guru-shisya parampara maintained by the Gurukula system of education, which has shaped Bharat's young minds from ages and the need to continue the system even in the present day. In the following section we discuss the qualities of the Guru and shishya who are the primary persons of the Gurukula system. 

Preceptors and Receptors of Education

In this section we discuss the most common yet significant terms used in Sanatana Dharma regarding those who impart and seek knowledge. It is unfortunate that such sacred terms such as Guru are loosely used in society in the present days.

Sanatana Dharma has held a high regard for the preceptors, the seers who imparted knowledge and were founders of a lineage of students. Whether living in recluse in forests or in cities or Gurukulas, shaping the future generations had always rested on the shoulders of Gurus and Acharyas. The difference between the different terms referring to preceptors are explained as follows as compiled from different texts namely the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas and the dharmashastras.

आचार्यः ॥ Acharya

An Acharya is one who follows what he preaches is an Acharya. A brief compilation of various definitions of Acharya from different texts are given below.

Taittriya Upanishad

वेदमनूच्याचार्योऽन्तेवासिनमनुशास्ति - सत्यं वद , धर्मं चर ... (तैत्तिरीयोप. शीक्षावल्ली)

Vayu Purana

वृद्धा ह्यलोलुपाश्चैव आत्मवन्तो ह्यदम्भकाः। सम्यग्विनीता ऋजवस्तानाचार्यान् प्रचक्षते ।। ५९.२९ ।। (Vayu. Pura. 59.29)

आचिनोति च शास्त्रार्थम् आचारे स्थापयत्यपि । स्वयमाचरते यस्मात् आचार्यस्तेन चोच्यते ॥  (Vayu. Pura. 59.30)

Brahmanda Purana

वृद्धाश्चालोलुपाश्चैव त्वात्मवन्तो ह्यदांभिकाः ।। सम्यग्विनीता ऋजवस्तानाचार्यान्प्रजक्षते ।। ३२.३१ ।। (Brah. Pura. 1.2.32.31)

स्वयमाचरते यस्मादाचारं स्थापयत्यपि ।। आचिनोति च शास्त्राणि आचार्यस्तेन चोच्यते ।। ३२.३२ ।। (Brah. Pura. 1.2.32.32)

The summary of the Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana slokas are as follows

They call these persons Acharyas - old men devoid of greediness, who are self-possessed and devoid of arrogance, straight-forward and who are educated and self disciplined.

An acharya is one who fully understands the conclusions of the various scriptures and practices it (Dharma). He who establishes the code of conduct and puts together (to master and practice) the various texts - such a person is called Acharya.

Manusmrti

उपनीय तु यः शिष्यं वेदमध्यापयेद्द्विजः । साङ्गं सरहस्यं च तमाचार्यं प्रचक्षते ॥ (Manu. Smrti 2.140)

Manu describes Acharya as one who performs Upanayana samskara of his student and teaches him the Vedas along with the Upangas.

उपाध्यायः ॥ Upadhyaya

Manu defines Upadhyaya as follows

एकदेशं तु वेदस्य वेदाङ्गान्यपि वा पुनः । योऽध्यापयति वृत्त्यर्थमुपाध्यायः स उच्यते ॥ २.१४१ (Manu. Smrti 2.141)

Upadhyaya is one who imparts the knowledge of Vedas and Vedangas as a profession (वृत्त्यर्थम्) to the student.

गुरुः ॥ Guru

Manu defines a Guru as follows

निषेकादीनि कर्माणि यः करोति यथाविधि । सम्भावयति चान्नेन स विप्रो गुरुरुच्यते ॥ २.१४२ ॥ (Manu. Smrti 2.142)

That Brahmana who prescribes Garbhadana and other samskaras according to the procedures in the shastras to the parents (meaning samskaras starting from the conception of the child) and nourishes by providing food (meaning helps in raising the child) - he is called a Guru. As per Medatithi and Mitaksarakara, Manu intends Guru to mean the father himself. (Reference Prof. J. S. R. Prasad in BVP Forum) The one who imparts that knowledge for the attainment of Moksha is a Guru. (Manu Smrti 12.83)

यिक्तियुक्तं वचो ग्राह्यं न ग्राह्यं गुरुगौरवत् । सर्वशास्त्ररहस्यं तद् याज्ञवल्क्येन भाषितम् ॥ याज्ञवल्क्यशिक्षा , 232

Student

Principles of Education

Education is for all

Social efficiency being one of the aims of education, it was naturally insisted that all sections of the society were qualified to receive it and thus have access to it. Since it was the best agency to improve the society it was regarded necessary for all people and not a privilege to those lucky few who had money and leisure to devote to its acquisition. Upanayana samskara, which marked the beginning of religious and literary education was made mandatory to male children (and was so for female children in vedic times). The stories of Brahmavadinis such as Gargi, Lopamudra etc clearly depict that women were engaged in vedic studies since ages. The Dvija varnas (the first three varnas) thus received at least the rudimentary of literary and religious education. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (1.5.7) further declared that a man can discharge his debts to pitrs (ancestors) not by merely procreating but by providing for their education also. To enforce this goal several steps and measures were built in the education system.

• Adequate supply of teachers was ensured by having an injunction where Brahmanas were to take up teaching as a duty irrespective of the consideration whether they were monetarily supported or not.

• Rajas and Maharajas used to support Brahmanas by providing for their food and cows for anushtana (practicing of the yajnas) apart from small pieces of agricultural land which helped them maintain their family and students.
• Education was to be imparted without monetary gains from students. Students however, paid the Gurudakshina in different forms (Dharma, Artha or Seva) but it was not mandatory to pay it in financial form only.

• Bhikshatana of a brahmachari was held in highest order for its moral perspectives, namely, the grhasthas were bound to support the persons in other ashramas and Annadana was held in highest importance, the social responsibility of the students was distributed in the society. The grhastas and brahmacharis from different varnas (poor or rich) learnt humility, the greatest moral value. Brahmacharis learnt time management and bhiksha instilled in the young minds that all are equal in a guru's ashrama whether the student came from a rich or a poor family background.

Education is a serious proposition

Though it was advocated that all people should receive the benefits of education, some checks were in place to avoid wastage of time on morally and intellectually unfit persons who were excluded from this benefit (Nirukta 2.4). Real scholarship was a serious path of great learning for the students. The path was designed to shape the moral, cultural and religious thinking of the student. Many early texts such as Vedas and Upanishads (Taittriyopanishad mentions student characteristics in Shikshavalli) and the later ones such as Puranas, Mahabharata and more recent Subhashitas emphasize the rigor that was required for a student to gain scholarly attributes. The rich and the poor have both to submit to stern discipline in order to become learned. The testing procedures in earlier days were also quite rigorous and were mostly verbal.

Studentship and Marriage are incompatible

One of the primary dharmas of a brahmachari is to lead a celibate life in order to realise his educational ideals. Thus, the authorities who built our education system laid down that a student should observe celibacy in thought and deed during his educational life and can marry at the end of the course with the permission of his Guru. Taittriya Upanishad elaborately mentions about the Samavartana and Snataka (a graduate who finished his studies) which are the rites of passage from brahmacharya to grhasthashrama. So marriage was considered an important samskara and transition point of ashramas. It may be observed that the reasons for being celibate during education include having single-minded focus on studies, having less responsibility (of fending for family), time management and self discipline for long and laborious studies and show complete dedication to perform sushruta to his Guru (which is very important for education).

Owing to several causes be it invasions by foreigners, gradual loss of traditional activities, changes in society structure all played a role in bringing about changes in the institution of marriage. One of the main deviations included the decrease in the marriageable age of girls which began to fall just before the advent of the Christian era and continued several centuries from then on. From 16 years of age, it came down to 14, then to 12 and even 11 or 10 in early centuries of the common era. The lowering of marriageable age of girls naturally brought down the marriageable age of the boys to about 18 and then to 16. Marriage thus was inevitably performed before the completion of education. Dr. Altekar arrives at the conclusion that from the beginning of the Christian era, more than 50% students used to marry before their education was completed.

Education begins at young age

Ancient rshis were clear and convinced that no good results would follow if education was begun late in life.

नाति षोडशमुपनयीत प्रसृष्टवृषणो ह्येष वृषलीभूतो भवतीति। (Jaim. Grhy. Sutr. 1.12)

A boy who begins his education at 16 years of age is not likely to bring any credit to his teachers. During childhood, as proved by modern sciences also, mind is pliable, memory is keen and intellect is receptive; the foundational habits of a child can be moulded to form good habits which will remain with him for the rest of his life. Upanayana samskara at the right age was laid down by in starting from Dharmasutra texts summarized for the present day in the Nibandhanas like Dharmasindhu etc.

सप्तमे ब्राह्मणमुपनयीत पञ्चमे ब्रह्मवर्चसकामं नवमे त्वायुष्काममेकादशे क्षत्रियं द्वादशे वैश्यं... (Jaim. Grhy. Sutr. 1.12)

It was held that 5th year (for those aspiring for Brahmavarchas) and 8th year (adding the one year of garbhasthiti) would be proper time for Upanayana in Brahmanas and in 9th year for those aspiring Ayush or longevity. 11th year is when Upanayana has to be conducted in Kshatriyas and 12th year for the Vaishyas.

Education should be thorough

Education was rightly regarded as the knowledge source of illumination and was expected to enable its recipients to successfully meet and solve the difficulties and problems of life. Therefore education should be thorough and efficient, not limited to imparting general knowledge of a number of subjects, ideally it was to train experts to handle different branches of knowledge. Since printing was not known, committing the knowledge to memory was required and highly emphasized so that it stead throughout the life of the person. To ensure this, personal attention to each student and practical training was insisted to maintain a high degree of proficiency.

Education is a continuous process

Once learnt in studentship education was either continued lifelong by a certain set of students of Vedas and many others progressed to learn other shastras and professional education. Thus we see that development of memory played a very important role and it was stipulated that every dvija graduate should recapitulate daily a portion of what he had learnt under the guidance of the Guru. At the time of Samavartana (end of studies or convocation) he is reminded not to neglect his duty of daily revision or Svadhyaya (स्वाध्यायः), as extolled in the famous Taittriya Upanishad Shikshavalli given below.

स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः। ... स्वाध्यायप्रवचनाभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम् । (Tait. Upan. 1.11.1)

During rainy season every graduated student was expected to devote extra time to his studies for more practical reasons that he cannot go out for his work when rains are heavy.

Education involves active student cooperation

Ancient seers held that the process of gaining knowledge was an active one, with the student expressing his urge in acquiring more knowledge and the Guru finding great pleasure in teaching the pupil. Voluntary cooperation in the form of willingness to learn, was a highly desired student quality which yielded great results. Students who were insincere, showing relaxed behaviour with indifference towards learning were not encouraged. Manusmrti 2.113 and 114, 191, considered it to be a meaningless action similar to sowing seeds in a barren land, in the case of education of insincere students.

धर्मार्थौ यत्र न स्यातां शुश्रूषा वापि तद्विधा । तत्र विद्या न वप्तव्या शुभं बीजं इवोषरे । । २.११२ । ।

विद्ययैव समं कामं मर्तव्यं ब्रह्मवादिना । आपद्यपि हि घोरायां न त्वेनां इरिणे वपेत् । । २.११३ । ।

विद्या ब्राह्मणं एत्याह शेवधिस्तेऽस्मि रक्ष माम् । असूयकाय मां मादास्तथा स्यां वीर्यवत्तमा । । २.११४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.112 - 114)

Summary : Where there is no dharma, artha (monetary return) or seva (शुश्रूषा) in return for teaching a student, then such a person should not be imparted any education. It would be similar to sowing good seeds in a barren land, in such a case.

Student Punishment

The popular saying "spare the rod and spoil the child" which is about punishment to children is the common social problem relevant to the present day education system also. Associated with this topic we have the following important questions

1. what if entrusted student meets with indifference from the Guru?
2. what are the allowed modes of remonstration for a teacher?

Ancient Bharatiya systems unfold various versions to deal with refractory students, and there is no unanimity about this concept.

Apastamba recommends that a teacher should try to improve refractory students by banishing them from his presence or by imposing a fast (Apas. 1.2.8.30).

Manu views gentle persuasion of a student is a good way but eventually mild physical punishment is permitted. (2.159-61)

Gautama supports Manu's views but adds the legal perspective that stern punishment by a teacher attracts legal prosecution.

शिष्यशिष्टिरवधेन ॥ अशक्तौ रज्जुवेणुविदलाभ्यां तनुभ्याम् ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.48-49)

वधस्ताडनम् । अताडयता गुरुणा भर्त्सनादिभिः शिष्यः शास्यः॥ (Mita. Bhas. for Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.48)

Summary : A guru should discipline a shisya by such verbal criticism and remonstration without physical punishment. If a shishya cannot be brought under control by remonstration then using a thin bamboo stick or string he can be punished.

अन्येन घ्नन् राज्ञा शास्यः ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.50)

हस्तादिना क्रोधवशेन ताडयन् राज्ञा शास्य आचार्यः । एवं शिष्यस्य गुरुकुले वास उक्तः ॥ (Mita. Bhas. for Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.50)

By other measures such as beating (with hands in anger) to discipline the shishsya attracts persecution of the Acharya by Raja (higher authority).

विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि ॥ Vidyarthi's Qualities

Ancient seers emphasized on the importance of habits, routine, imitation and association to secure ready cooperation of the shishya towards education. At a young impressionable age a child can be molded to develop the required vidyarthi's qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि) and such habits constitute a second nature in adulthood.

Importance of Habits

Rules of discipline, prescribed during formative years, are often laid down for forming good and valuable habits (preventive action) more than for the purpose of prohibiting him from doing undesirable acts (corrective actions). Preparing for the hard life and long struggles before him, rules are laid down, calculated to develop them into strong men with determination and great enduring power.

Importance of Routine

Routine also played an important role in the pliable age which aided in the formation of good habits and master their subjects by the end of their course. It was made interesting and engaging for children so that compliance is easily achieved. Recitation of the slokas and group recitation by several children was for motivating the children and secure their cooperation. Different ways of routine for example was

• Students of primary and secondary education (the first few years of education) went through the routine of daily recitation and memorization practice. This would enable them to master their subject matter.
• Students of poetics and literature were engaged in practicing composition and building slokas.
• Students of subjects like Vyakarana engaged in memorizing the sutras daily.
• Students of astronomy were engaged in daily observations and mathematical calculations.
• Students of Vedas were engaged in daily practice of yajnas.
• Students of sculpture and painting engaged in regular long hours of practice.

Association and Imitation

Association and imitation played a great part in moulding the character and improving the calibre of a student. Even a dull student will improve his intellect if he is close association with a brilliant boy and imitates his methods of study. He we remember the following advise from Mahabharata about association with people of bad character

बुद्धिश्च हीयते पुंसां नीचैः सह समागमात् । मध्यमैर्मध्यतां याति श्रेष्ठतां याति चोत्तमैः॥ (Maha. Vana. 1.30)

Summary : The intellect of a person when associated with bad company becomes bad, while when associated with middle kind of people brings in the middle state but when associated with intellectually higher standard of people, brings in greater growth.

Imitation and copying a good student was promoted and it helped in bringing up a student of lesser intellect. Many subhashitas declare that association with good people elevates a person while bad association only brings his downfall. One should be very careful in choosing one's company.