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'''''Dasa''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word found in ancient Bharat's texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and ''[[Arthasastra]]''.<ref name=kangle/> It usually means "enemy" or "servant"<ref name=bw/> but ''dasa'', or ''das'', also means a "[[servant of God]]", "devotee," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.<ref name=schopen/>
 
  
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''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.<ref name=bw/><ref name=washhale>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 159-169</ref>
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{{NeedCitation}}
  
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==Etymology==
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'''''Dasa''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word found in ancient Bharat's texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and ''[[Arthasastra]]''.<ref name="kangle" /> It usually means "enemy" or "servant" but ''dasa'', or ''das'', also means a "[[servant of God]]", "devotee," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.
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''Dāsa'' (Sanskrit: दास) first appears in [[Vedas|Vedic texts]] from the second millennium BCE.<ref name=bw/> There is no consensus on its origins.
 
  
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Karl Heinrich Tzschucke in 1806, in his translations of the Roman geographer [[Pomponius Mela]], noted etymological and phonological parallels between ''dasa'' and the ethonyms of the [[Dahae]] – Persian داها; Sanskrit ''Dasa''; Latin ''Dahae''; Greek Δάοι ''Daoi'', Δάαι, Δᾶαι ''Daai'' and Δάσαι ''Dasai'' –  a people who lived on the south-eastern shores of the [[Caspian Sea]] in ancient times (and from whom modern Dehestan/Dehistan takes its name).<ref>See, for example: Pomponius Melo (transl. and ed. by Karl Henrich Tzschucke) ''De sitv orbis libri tres: ad plvrimos codices mostos vel denvo vel primvm consvltos aliorvmqve editiones recensiticvm notis criticis et exegeticis vel integris vel selectis Hermolai Barbari [et al] conlectis praeterea et adpositis doctorvm virorvm animadversionibvs additis svis a Carolo Henrico Tzschvckio'', Vol. II, Pt 1 (1806), p. 95 and; Pomponius Mela (transl. and ed. by Karl Henrich Tzschucke) ''Pomponii Melae de situ orbis: libri tres, ad plurimos codices msstos vel denvo vel primum consultos aliorumque editiones recensiti'', Vol. II, Pt 3 (1806), p. 136.</ref> Likewise [[Max Muller]] proposed that ''dasa'' referred to indigenous peoples living in South Asia before the arrival of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Aryans]]. However, such theories have long been controversial and are considered by many scholars as inconsistent with the broader usage of ''dasa'' in the ''[[Vedas]]''.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 162-165</ref><ref>Edwin Bryant (2004), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195169478, pages 59-67</ref>
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''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.
  
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[[Monier Monier-Williams]] in 1899, stated that the meaning of ''dasa'' varies contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god".<ref name=monier>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 475</ref> In later Bharat's literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage of ''dasa'' is used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit".<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages'', Motilal Banarsidass, page 476</ref> In the altter sense, ''dāsa'' is masculine, while the feminine equivalent is ''dāsi''.<ref name=monier/> Some early 20th Century translations, such as P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), translate ''dasa'' as "slave".<ref>P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 60, No. 3113 pages 841-846</ref>
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==Etymology==
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Some early 20th Century translations, such as P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), translate ''dasa'' as "slave".<ref>P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 60, No. 3113 pages 841-846</ref>
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Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427</ref> and others<ref>B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10-16, 30-71</ref> suggest that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.<ref name=bw>Barbara West (2008), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, ISBN 978-0816071098, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA182 page 182]</ref>
 
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[[Michael Witzel]] in his review of Indo-Iranian texts in 1995, states that ''dasa'' in the Vedic literature represented a North Iranian tribe, who were enemies of the Vedic Aryans, and ''das-yu'' meant "enemy, foreigner."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Witzel |title=Autochthonous Aryans? |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=7 |number=3 |year=2001 |p=16 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/118}}</ref> He notes that these enemies could have apparently become slaves if captured. Witzel compares the etymological root of ''dasa'' to words from other Indo-European languages that imply "enemy, foreigner", including the Avestan ''dahåka'' and ''dŋha'', Latin ''dahi'' and Greek ''daai''.<ref>Michael Witzel (1995), Early Bharat's history: Linguistic and textual parameters, in The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia (Editor: G. Erdosy), de Gruyter, pages 85-125</ref>
 
  
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[[Asko Parpola]] in 2015, has proposed that ''dasa'' is related to the ancient Iranian and proto-Saka word ''daha'', which means "man".{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=100-106}} Parpola states that ''dasa'' referred only to Central Asian peoples.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82-85, 96-106}} This is contrasted with ''arya'', the word for "man" used by, and of, Indo-European people from Central Asia. Consequently, a Vedic text that include prayers for the defeat of the ''dasa'' as an "enemy people", according to Parpola, possibly refers to people from the so-called [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC), who spoke a different language and opposed Aryan religious practices.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82-85, 96-106}} Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but this is controversial.<ref name="jstor.org">Colin Renfrew (1991), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25182273 The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dāsas by Asko Parpola], Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 1, No. 1, pages 106-109</ref>
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Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427</ref> suggests that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light." In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.
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''Dasa'' in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts can mean  "servant".<ref name=schopen>Gregory Schopen (2004), Buddhist Monks and Business Matters, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824827748, page 201</ref> In Pali language, it is used as suffix in Buddhist texts, where ''Amaya-dasa'' was translated by Davids and Stede in 1925, as a "slave by birth",<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 104</ref> ''Kila-dasa'' translated as a "bought slave",<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 217</ref> and ''Amata-dasa'' as "one who sees Amata (Sanskrit: ''Amrita'', nectar of immortality) or [[Nibbana]]".<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 73</ref>
 
  
 
==Hindu Texts==
 
==Hindu Texts==
  
 
===Rig Veda===
 
===Rig Veda===
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''Dasa'' and related words such as ''Dasyu'' are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In other contexts, the word ''dasa'' refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.<ref name="bw"/><ref>[[R. C. Majumdar]] and A. D. Pusalker (editors): ''[[The History and Culture of the Bharat's People]]. Volume I, The Vedic age''. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.253. Keith and Macdonell 1922, ISBN 978-8172764401</ref>
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''Dasa'' and related words such as ''Dasyu'' are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light." In other contexts, the word ''dasa'' refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.<ref>[[R. C. Majumdar]] and A. D. Pusalker (editors): ''[[The History and Culture of the Bharat's People]]. Volume I, The Vedic age''. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.253. Keith and Macdonell 1922, ISBN 978-8172764401</ref>
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[[A. A. Macdonell]] and [[A. B. Keith]] in 1912 remarked that, "The great difference between the Dasyus and the Aryans was their religion... It is significant that constant reference is made to difference in religion between Aryans and Dasa and Dasyu."{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
 
  
 
====Dasa with the meaning of savage, barbarians====
 
====Dasa with the meaning of savage, barbarians====
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Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.<ref name=washhale/>
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Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.
  
 
{{Quote|
 
{{Quote|
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त्वं तस्यामित्रहन्वध'''र्दास'''स्य दम्भय <nowiki>॥८॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>
 
त्वं तस्यामित्रहन्वध'''र्दास'''स्य दम्भय <nowiki>॥८॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>
  
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Around us is the '''Dasyu''', riteless, void of sense, inhuman, keeping alien laws.
 
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Baffle, thou Slayer of the foe, the weapon which this '''Dasa''' wields.
 
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– Translated by Ralph Griffith<ref>[[Wikisource:The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 22|Rigveda, Mandala 10, Hymn 22]] Ralph T Griffith, Wikisource</ref>
 
  
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The '''Dasyu''' practising no religious rites, not knowing us thoroughly, following other observances, obeying no human laws,
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<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/56/mode/2up Rigveda 10.22.8] [[H. H. Wilson]] (Translator), Trubner & Co, pages 57-58</ref>
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Baffle, destroyer of enemies [Indra], the weapon of that '''Dasa'''.
 
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– Translated by [[H. H. Wilson]]<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/56/mode/2up Rigveda 10.22.8] [[H. H. Wilson]] (Translator), Trubner & Co, pages 57-58</ref>
 
 
</poem>
 
</poem>
 
|Rigveda 10.22.8}}
 
|Rigveda 10.22.8}}
  
 
====Dasa with the meaning of demon====
 
====Dasa with the meaning of demon====
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Within the Vedic texts, ''Dasa'' is the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the word ''Dasa'' in Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 163</ref>
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Within the Vedic texts, ''Dasa'' is the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the word ''Dasa'' in Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,
  
 
{{Quote|
 
{{Quote|
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अस्य त्रितो न्वोजसा वृधानो विपा वराहमयोअग्रया हन् ॥६॥</nowiki>
 
अस्य त्रितो न्वोजसा वृधानो विपा वराहमयोअग्रया हन् ॥६॥</nowiki>
  
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The sovereign Indra attacking him overcame the loud shouting, six eyed, three headed '''Dasa''',
 
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Trita invigorated by his strength, smote the cloud with his iron-tipped finger.
 
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</poem>
 
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|Rigveda 10.99.6| translated by H. H. Wilson<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/284/mode/2up Rigveda 10.99.6] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 285</ref>}}
 
  
 
====Dasa with the meaning of servant or slave====
 
====Dasa with the meaning of servant or slave====
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Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants. [[Ram Sharan Sharma|R. S. Sharma]], in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave in [[Rigveda]] is ''dāsa'', and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3.<ref name=sharmasai24>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=R. S. |title=Sudras in Ancient India |publisher=Motilal Banarasidass |year=1990 |origyear=first published in 1958 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC|pages=24-25, 50-51}}</ref> The translation of word ''dasa'' to servant or slave varies by scholars.<ref name=bw/> HH Wilson, for example, translates ''Dasa'' in Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/166/mode/2up Rigveda 10.62.10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 167</ref> as in verse 10.62.10:<ref name="Wash Edward Hale 1999 page 162">Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 162</ref>
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Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants. [[Ram Sharan Sharma|R. S. Sharma]], in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave in [[Rigveda]] is ''dāsa'', and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3. The translation of word ''dasa'' to servant or slave varies by scholars. HH Wilson, for example, translates ''Dasa'' in Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave, as in verse 10.62.10:
  
 
{{Quote|
 
{{Quote|
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उत '''दासा''' परिविषे स्मद्दिष्टी गोपरीणसा <nowiki>। यदुस्तुर्वश्च मामहे ॥१०॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.६२ Rigveda 10.62] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>
 
उत '''दासा''' परिविषे स्मद्दिष्टी गोपरीणसा <nowiki>। यदुस्तुर्वश्च मामहे ॥१०॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.६२ Rigveda 10.62] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>
  
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Yadu and Indra speaking auspiciously, and possessed of numerous cattle, gave them like '''servants''', for the enjoyment.
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R. S. Sharma translates ''dasi'' in a Vedic era Upanishad as "maid-servant".
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</poem>
 
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|Rigveda 10.62.10| Translated by HH Wilson<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/166/mode/2up Rigveda 10.62.10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 167</ref>}}
 
  
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R. S. Sharma translates ''dasi'' in a Vedic era Upanishad as "maid-servant".<ref name=sharmasai50/>
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===Later Vedic texts===
  
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===Later Vedic texts===
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The three words Dasa, Dasyu and [[Asura]] are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig veda, the Saunaka recension of [[Atharvaveda|Atharva veda]], the Paippalada [[Samhita]] of the Atharva veda and the [[Brahmana]]s text in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpret ''Dasa'' and ''Dasyu'' may have been a synonym of ''Asura'' (demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts.  
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{{expand section|date=February 2016}}
 
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The three words Dasa, Dasyu and [[Asura]] are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig veda, the Saunaka recension of [[Atharvaveda|Atharva veda]], the Paippalada [[Samhita]] of the Atharva veda and the [[Brahmana]]s text in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpret ''Dasa'' and ''Dasyu'' may have been a synonym of ''Asura'' (demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 157-174</ref>{{request quotation|date=February 2016}}
 
  
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Sharma states that the word ''dasa'' occurs in Aitareya and Gopatha [[Brahmanas]], but not in the sense of a slave.<ref name=sharmasai50>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=R. S. |title=Sudras in Ancient India |publisher=Motilal Banarasidass |year=1990 | origyear=first published in 1958 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC|pages=50-51}}</ref>
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Sharma states that the word ''dasa'' occurs in Aitareya and Gopatha [[Brahmanas]], but not in the sense of a slave.
  
 
===Arthasastra===
 
===Arthasastra===
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[[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthasastra]] dedicates the thirteenth chapter on ''dasas'', in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the [[Maurya Empire]] period (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915,<ref name=ss/> Kangle's translation in 1960s<ref name=Kangle2>{{citation |last1=Kangle |first1=R. P. |title=The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part II) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ag89KaFH8SsC&pg=PA237 |year=1986 |origyear=first published 1969 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |edition=Second |isbn=978-81-208-0042-7 |pages=237–}}</ref> and Rangarajan's translation in 1987<ref name=Rangarajan>{{citation |last=Rangarajan |first=L. N. |title=Kautilya — The ARTHASHASTRA |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3jbzZkoR36QC |year=1992 |origyear=first published in 1987 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-81-8475-011-9 |at=Chapter VIII.x}}</ref> all map ''dasa'' as slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to ''dasa'' by [[Kautilya]], such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporary Greece.<ref name=rpk>{{citation |last1=Kangle |first1=R. P. |title=The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part III) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dzxwTS0-nbUC&pg=PA186 |year=1997 |origyear=first published 1960 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0041-0 |p=186}}</ref> [[Edmund Leach]] points out that the Dasa was the antithesis of the concept of ''Arya''. As the latter term evolved through successive meanings, so did Dasa: from "indigenous inhabitant" to "serf," "tied servant," and finally "chattel slave." He suggests the term "unfreedom" to cover all these meanings.<ref name="Leach review">{{citation |first=Edmund |last=Leach |title=Slavery in Ancient India by Dev Raj Chanana (Book review) |journal=Science & Society |volume=26 |number=3 |year=1962 |pp=335-338 |JSTOR=40400852}}</ref>
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[[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthasastra]] dedicates the thirteenth chapter on ''dasas'', in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the [[Maurya Empire]] period (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915, Kangle's translation in 1960s and Rangarajan's translation in 1987<ref name=Rangarajan>{{citation |last=Rangarajan |first=L. N. |title=Kautilya — The ARTHASHASTRA |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3jbzZkoR36QC |year=1992 |origyear=first published in 1987 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-81-8475-011-9 |at=Chapter VIII.x}}</ref> all map ''dasa'' as slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to ''dasa'' by [[Kautilya]], such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporary Greece.<ref name=rpk>{{citation |last1=Kangle |first1=R. P. |title=The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part III) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dzxwTS0-nbUC&pg=PA186 |year=1997 |origyear=first published 1960 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0041-0 |p=186}}</ref>  
  
 
According to Arthasastra, anyone who had been found guilty of ''nishpatitah'' (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime)<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=niSpAtita&script=&direction=SE&link=yes निष्पातित] Sanskrit English dictionary</ref> may mortgage oneself to become ''dasa'' for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the ''dasa'' for money and privileges.<ref name=rpk/><ref name=ss/>
 
According to Arthasastra, anyone who had been found guilty of ''nishpatitah'' (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime)<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=niSpAtita&script=&direction=SE&link=yes निष्पातित] Sanskrit English dictionary</ref> may mortgage oneself to become ''dasa'' for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the ''dasa'' for money and privileges.<ref name=rpk/><ref name=ss/>
  
 
According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force a ''dasa'' (slave) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a female ''dasa''.<ref name=ss/>
 
According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force a ''dasa'' (slave) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a female ''dasa''.<ref name=ss/>
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{{quote|Employing a slave (''dasa'') to carry the dead or to sweep ordure, urine or the leavings of food; keeping a slave naked; hurting or abusing him; or violating the chastity of a female slave shall cause the forfeiture of the value paid for him or her. Violation of the chastity shall at once earn their liberty for them.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss>Shamasastry (Translator, 1915),  [https://archive.org/stream/Arthasastra_English_Translation/Arthashastra_of_Chanakya_-_English#page/n261/mode/2up/search/slave Arthashastra of Chanakya]</ref>}}
 
−
 
−
{{quote|When a master has connection (sex) with a pledged female slave (''dasa'') against her will, he shall be punished. When a man commits or helps another to commit rape with a female slave pledged to him, he shall not only forfeit the purchase value, but also pay a certain amount of money to her and a fine of twice the amount to the government.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss/>}}
 
−
 
−
{{quote|A slave (''dasa'') shall be entitled to enjoy not only whatever he has earned without prejudice to his master's work, but also the inheritance he has received from his father.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss/>}}
 
−
 
−
==Buddhist texts==
 
−
Words related to ''dasa'' are found in early Buddhist texts, such as as ''dāso na pabbājetabbo'', which Davids and Stede translate as "the slave cannot become a Bhikkhu".<ref name=davidsstedeped320>Thomas William Rhys Davids and William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 320</ref> This restriction on who could become a Buddhist monk is found in Vinaya Pitakam i.93, [[Digha Nikaya]], [[Majjhima Nikāya]], Tibetan ''Bhiksukarmavakya'' and ''Upasampadajnapti''.<ref name=davidsstedeped320/><ref>Gregory Schopen (2010), On Some Who Are Not Allowed to Become Buddhist Monks or Nuns: An Old List of Types of Slaves or Unfree Laborers, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 130, No. 2, pages 225-234</ref>
 
−
 
−
==Jaina texts==
 
−
{{expand section|date=February 2016}}
 
−
 
−
==Other uses==
 
−
===Use of religious "devotees"===
 
−
In [[Tamil language|Tamil]] tontai, dasa, servant, or slave, commonly used to refer to devotees of [[Vishnu]] or [[Krishna]].<ref name="isbn0-19-532639-3">{{cite book| author= Steven P. Hopkins| title=An ornament for jewels: love poems for the Lord of Gods|publisher=Oxford University Press| location=Oxford [Oxfordshire]|year=2007 |page=160|isbn=0-19-532639-3}}</ref>
 
−
 
−
In [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] theology [[Smriti]] statement ''{{IAST|dāsa-bhūto harer eva nānyasvaiva kadācana}}'', living entities (bhuto) are eternally in the service (dasa) of the Supreme Lord ([[Hari]]).<ref>[[Bhaktivedanta Swami]], A. C. (1972). ''The [[Bhagavad-gita As It Is]]'', second edition. [[New York]]: [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]].</ref> Thus designation for [[Vaishnava]] followers of ''[[svayam bhagavan]]'' Krishna was the status title ''dasa'' as part of their names as in ''Hari Dasa''.<ref name="Cynt01">{{cite book
 
−
| author=Talbot, Cynthia |title=Precolonial India in practice: society, region, and identity in medieval Andhra |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] | year=2001 |page=81 |isbn=0-19-513661-6}}</ref>
 
−
 
−
===As a surname or byname===
 
−
{{main|Das (surname)}}
 
−
Dasa or Das is also a surname found among Sikhs and Hindus, typically north, eastern and western India, where it literally means "votary, devotee, servant of God."<ref>D Roy (2013), Rural Politics in India: Political Stratification and Governance in West Bengal, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 1107042356, page 67</ref> For example, [[Mohandas Gandhi]]'s first name, Mohandas, means servant of Mohan or Krishna. Also, the name Surdas means servant of Sur or Deva. In the past, many sants of [[bhakti movement]] tradition added it in their names signifying their total devotion or surrender to God.<ref name="Cynt01"/>
 
  
 
==Views of Sri Aurobindo==
 
==Views of Sri Aurobindo==
−
Authors like [[Sri Aurobindo]] believe that words like Dasa are used in the Rig Veda symbolically and should be interpreted spiritually, and that Dasa does not refer to human beings, but rather to demons who hinder the spiritual attainment of the mystic. Many Dasas are purely mythical and can only refer to demons. There is for example a Dasa called Urana with 99 arms (RV II.14.4), and a Dasa with six eyes and three heads in the Rig Veda.<ref>Parpola 1988, Sethna 1992:329</ref>
+
Authors like [[Sri Aurobindo]] believe that words like Dasa are used in the Rig Veda symbolically and should be interpreted adhyatmikly, and that Dasa does not refer to human beings, but rather to demons who hinder the adhyatmik attainment of the mystic. Many Dasas are purely mythical and can only refer to demons. There is for example a Dasa called Urana with 99 arms (RV II.14.4), and a Dasa with six eyes and three heads in the Rig Veda.
  
 
Aurobindo<ref>Sethna 1992:114 and 340, Aurobindo, The Secret of the Veda, p. 220-21</ref> commented that in the RV III.34 hymn, where the word Arya varna occurs, Indra is described as the increaser of the thoughts of his followers: "the shining hue of these thoughts, sukram varnam asam, is evidently the same as that sukra or sveta Aryan hue which is mentioned in verse 9. Indra carries forward or increases the "colour" of these thoughts beyond the opposition of the Panis, pra varnam atiracchukram; in doing so he slays the Dasyus and protects or fosters and increases the Aryan "colour", hatvi dasyun pra aryam varnam avat."<ref>Sethna 1992:114 and 340</ref>
 
Aurobindo<ref>Sethna 1992:114 and 340, Aurobindo, The Secret of the Veda, p. 220-21</ref> commented that in the RV III.34 hymn, where the word Arya varna occurs, Indra is described as the increaser of the thoughts of his followers: "the shining hue of these thoughts, sukram varnam asam, is evidently the same as that sukra or sveta Aryan hue which is mentioned in verse 9. Indra carries forward or increases the "colour" of these thoughts beyond the opposition of the Panis, pra varnam atiracchukram; in doing so he slays the Dasyus and protects or fosters and increases the Aryan "colour", hatvi dasyun pra aryam varnam avat."<ref>Sethna 1992:114 and 340</ref>
Line 113: Line 67:
 
According to Aurobindo (The Secret of the Veda), RV 5.14.4 is a key for understanding the character of the Dasyus:
 
According to Aurobindo (The Secret of the Veda), RV 5.14.4 is a key for understanding the character of the Dasyus:
  
−
:''Agni born shone out slaying the Dasyus, the darkness by the light, he found the Cows, the Waters, Swar.'' (transl. Aurobindo)<ref name="Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349">Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349</ref><ref>Which is translated by Griffith thus: ''Agni shone bright when born, with light killing the Dasyus and the dark'' ''He found the Kine, the Floods, the Sun''. (trans. Griffith)</ref>
+
:''Agni born shone out slaying the Dasyus, the darkness by the light, he found the Cows, the Waters, Swar.'' (transl. Aurobindo)<ref name="Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349">Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349</ref>
  
 
Aurobindo explains that in this verse the struggle between light and darkness, truth and falsehood, divine and undivine is described.<ref name="Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349" /> It is through the shining light created by Agni, god of fire, that the Dasyus, who are identified with the darkness, are slain. The Dasyus are also described in the [[Rig Veda]] as intercepting and withholding the Cows, the Waters and Swar ("heavenly world"; RV 5.34.9; 8.68.9). It is not difficult, of course, to find very similar metaphors, equating political or military opponents with evil and darkness, even in contemporary [[propaganda]].
 
Aurobindo explains that in this verse the struggle between light and darkness, truth and falsehood, divine and undivine is described.<ref name="Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349" /> It is through the shining light created by Agni, god of fire, that the Dasyus, who are identified with the darkness, are slain. The Dasyus are also described in the [[Rig Veda]] as intercepting and withholding the Cows, the Waters and Swar ("heavenly world"; RV 5.34.9; 8.68.9). It is not difficult, of course, to find very similar metaphors, equating political or military opponents with evil and darkness, even in contemporary [[propaganda]].
  
−
[[K.D. Sethna]] (1992) writes: "According to Aurobindo,(...) there are passages in which the spiritual interpretation of the Dasas, Dasyus and Panis is the sole one possible and all others are completely excluded. There are no passages in which we lack a choice either between this interpretation and a nature-poetry or between this interpretation and the reading of human enemies."
+
[[K.D. Sethna]] (1992) writes: "According to Aurobindo,(...) there are passages in which the adhyatmik interpretation of the Dasas, Dasyus and Panis is the sole one possible and all others are completely excluded. There are no passages in which we lack a choice either between this interpretation and a nature-poetry or between this interpretation and the reading of human enemies."
−
==Comparative linguistics==
 
−
Dasa and related terms have been examined by several scholars.<ref>e.g., [[Asko Parpola]] (1988), Mayrhofer (1986-1996), Benveniste (1973), Lecoq (1990), Windfuhr (1999)</ref> While the terms ''Dasa'' and ''Dasyu'' have a negative meaning in Sanskrit, their Iranian counterparts ''Daha'' and ''Dahyu'' have preserved their positive (or neutral) meaning. This is similar to the Sanskrit terms ''[[deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]'' (a "positive" term) and ''[[Asura]]'' (a "negative" term). The Iranian counterparts of these terms (''[[Div (Persian mythology)|Daeva]]'' and ''[[Ahura]]'') have opposite meanings.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Asko Parpola]] states the original ''Dasa'' is related to the Old Persian word ''Daha'' which also means "man", but refers specifically to a regional ethnic minority of Persia.<ref name=asko>Asko Parpola (2015), ''The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization'', Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190226923, pages 100-106</ref> Parpola contrasts ''Daha'' with ''Arya'', stating that the latter also referred to "man" but specifically to the incoming [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Iranians]] from Central Asia. The Vedic text that include prayers to help defeat the "Dasa as enemy people", states Parpola, may refer to the wars of the Indo-Iranians against the bearers of the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC) culture. The latter spoke a different language and opposed Indo-Iranian religious practices.<ref name=asko/> Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but his theory is controversial.<ref name="jstor.org"/>
 
−
 
 
−
==See also==
 
−
*[[Asura]]
 
−
*[[Déisi]]
 
−
*[[Mleccha]]
 
−
*[[Adivasi]]
 
−
 
 
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
+
<references />
−
; Sources
+
[[Category:Rigveda]]
−
* {{citation |first=Asko |last=Parpola |title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press Incorporated |year=2015 |ISBN=0190226927}}
+
[[Category:Arthashastra]]
−
 
 
−
==Further reading==
 
−
*[[Edwin Bryant (author)|Bryant, Edwin]]: [[The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture]]. 2001. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9
 
−
*J. Bronkhorst and M.M. Deshpande. 1999. Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
 
−
*Hock, Hans. 1999b, Through a Glass Darkly: Modern "Racial" Interpretations vs. Textual and General Prehistoric Evidence on Arya and Dasa/Dasyu in Vedic Indo-Aryan Society." in Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia.
 
−
*Iyengar, Srinivas. 1914. "Did the Dravidians of India Obtain Their Culture from Aran Immigrant [sic]." Anthropos 1-15.
 
−
*Macdonell, A.A. and Keith, A.B. 1912. The Vedic Index of Names and Subjects.
 
−
* Parpola, Asko: 1988, The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dasas; The problem of the Aryans and the Soma.
 
−
*Rg Veda 1854-57. Rig-Veda Samhita. tr. H.H. Wilson. London: H.Allen and Co.
 
−
*Schetelich, Maria. 1990, "The problem of the "Dark Skin" (Krsna Tvac) in the Rgveda." Visva Bharati Annals 3:244-249.
 
−
* [[K.D. Sethna|Sethna, K.D.]] 1992. [[The Problem of Aryan Origins]]. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
 
−
*Trautmann, Thomas R. 1997, Aryans and British India. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 
−
*Witzel, Michael. 1995b, 325, fn, "Rgvedic History" in The Indo-Aryans of South Asia.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Category:Demons in Hinduism]]
 
−
[[Category:Rigvedic tribes]]
 

Latest revision as of 22:35, 12 March 2020

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Dasa is a Sanskrit word found in ancient Bharat's texts such as the Rigveda and Arthasastra.[1] It usually means "enemy" or "servant" but dasa, or das, also means a "servant of God", "devotee," "votary" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.

Dasa, in some contexts, is also related to dasyu and asura, which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.

Etymology

Some early 20th Century translations, such as P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), translate dasa as "slave".[2]

Kangle in 1960,[1] suggests that, depending on the context, dasa may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words dasa or dasyu suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word dasa mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light." In some contexts, the word dasa may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.

Hindu Texts

Rig Veda

Dasa and related words such as Dasyu are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word dasa mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light." In other contexts, the word dasa refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.[3]

Dasa with the meaning of savage, barbarians

Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.

<poem> अकर्मा दस्युरभि नो अमन्तुरन्यव्रतो अमानुषः । त्वं तस्यामित्रहन्वधर्दासस्य दम्भय ॥८॥[4]


[5] </poem>

— Rigveda 10.22.8

Dasa with the meaning of demon

Within the Vedic texts, Dasa is the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the word Dasa in Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,

{{Quote| <poem> स इद्दासं तुवीरवं पतिर्दन्षळक्षं त्रिशीर्षाणं दमन्यत् । अस्य त्रितो न्वोजसा वृधानो विपा वराहमयोअग्रया हन् ॥६॥


Dasa with the meaning of servant or slave

Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants. R. S. Sharma, in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave in Rigveda is dāsa, and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3. The translation of word dasa to servant or slave varies by scholars. HH Wilson, for example, translates Dasa in Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave, as in verse 10.62.10:

{{Quote| <poem> उत दासा परिविषे स्मद्दिष्टी गोपरीणसा । यदुस्तुर्वश्च मामहे ॥१०॥[6]

R. S. Sharma translates dasi in a Vedic era Upanishad as "maid-servant".

Later Vedic texts

The three words Dasa, Dasyu and Asura are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig veda, the Saunaka recension of Atharva veda, the Paippalada Samhita of the Atharva veda and the Brahmanas text in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpret Dasa and Dasyu may have been a synonym of Asura (demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts.

Sharma states that the word dasa occurs in Aitareya and Gopatha Brahmanas, but not in the sense of a slave.

Arthasastra

Kautilya's Arthasastra dedicates the thirteenth chapter on dasas, in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the Maurya Empire period (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915, Kangle's translation in 1960s and Rangarajan's translation in 1987[7] all map dasa as slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to dasa by Kautilya, such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporary Greece.[8]

According to Arthasastra, anyone who had been found guilty of nishpatitah (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime)[9] may mortgage oneself to become dasa for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the dasa for money and privileges.[8][10]

According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force a dasa (slave) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a female dasa.[10]

Views of Sri Aurobindo

Authors like Sri Aurobindo believe that words like Dasa are used in the Rig Veda symbolically and should be interpreted adhyatmikly, and that Dasa does not refer to human beings, but rather to demons who hinder the adhyatmik attainment of the mystic. Many Dasas are purely mythical and can only refer to demons. There is for example a Dasa called Urana with 99 arms (RV II.14.4), and a Dasa with six eyes and three heads in the Rig Veda.

Aurobindo[11] commented that in the RV III.34 hymn, where the word Arya varna occurs, Indra is described as the increaser of the thoughts of his followers: "the shining hue of these thoughts, sukram varnam asam, is evidently the same as that sukra or sveta Aryan hue which is mentioned in verse 9. Indra carries forward or increases the "colour" of these thoughts beyond the opposition of the Panis, pra varnam atiracchukram; in doing so he slays the Dasyus and protects or fosters and increases the Aryan "colour", hatvi dasyun pra aryam varnam avat."[12]

According to Aurobindo (The Secret of the Veda), RV 5.14.4 is a key for understanding the character of the Dasyus:

Agni born shone out slaying the Dasyus, the darkness by the light, he found the Cows, the Waters, Swar. (transl. Aurobindo)[13]

Aurobindo explains that in this verse the struggle between light and darkness, truth and falsehood, divine and undivine is described.[13] It is through the shining light created by Agni, god of fire, that the Dasyus, who are identified with the darkness, are slain. The Dasyus are also described in the Rig Veda as intercepting and withholding the Cows, the Waters and Swar ("heavenly world"; RV 5.34.9; 8.68.9). It is not difficult, of course, to find very similar metaphors, equating political or military opponents with evil and darkness, even in contemporary propaganda.

K.D. Sethna (1992) writes: "According to Aurobindo,(...) there are passages in which the adhyatmik interpretation of the Dasas, Dasyus and Panis is the sole one possible and all others are completely excluded. There are no passages in which we lack a choice either between this interpretation and a nature-poetry or between this interpretation and the reading of human enemies."

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427
  2. ↑ P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 60, No. 3113 pages 841-846
  3. ↑ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The History and Culture of the Bharat's People. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.253. Keith and Macdonell 1922, ISBN 978-8172764401
  4. ↑ Rigveda Sanskrit text, Wikisource
  5. ↑ Rigveda 10.22.8 H. H. Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, pages 57-58
  6. ↑ Rigveda 10.62 Sanskrit text, Wikisource
  7. ↑ Rangarajan, L. N. (1992) [first published in 1987], Kautilya — The ARTHASHASTRA, Penguin Books Limited, Chapter VIII.x, ISBN 978-81-8475-011-9<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Kangle, R. P. (1997) [first published 1960], The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part III), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., p. 186, ISBN 978-81-208-0041-0<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  9. ↑ निष्पातित Sanskrit English dictionary
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ss
  11. ↑ Sethna 1992:114 and 340, Aurobindo, The Secret of the Veda, p. 220-21
  12. ↑ Sethna 1992:114 and 340
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Sethna 1992:114-115 and 348-349
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