Difference between revisions of "Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)"

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Atom has been described as the smallest, indivisible particle in any substance. Science and philosophy have studied through investigations and experiments, the many forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces etc., but one of the major theories studied is that of the atom.  
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Atom (Sanskrit: परमाणुः) has been described as the smallest, indivisible particle in any substance. Science and philosophy have studied through investigations and experiments, the many forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces etc., but one of the major theories studied is that of the atom.  
 +
 
 +
In Indian thought, there are two naturalistic theories of the origin of the empirical world. One view accords world to be a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Nature (one becoming many), while the second views world arising out of atoms combining together in various ways (many becoming one) in a limited sense. The Sankhya represents the first, and the Vaiseshika the second view. <ref name=":3" />
  
 
== Nyaya-Vaiseshika Atomic Theory ==
 
== Nyaya-Vaiseshika Atomic Theory ==
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The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire which are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents.
+
The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for their logically-structured atomism. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents. The concept of avayavin (whole) and avayava (constituent part) has shaped the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This school of thought uses a logical and causal framework to explain how invisible particles combine to form the visible universe.<ref name=":13">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 461-469</ref>
  
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The chemical theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system involves the theory of Anu-s or atoms comparable to the tanmatras of the Samkhya philosophy. The Samkhya virtually substantizes the “gunas”; the Vaiseshikas take them to be qualities which are always found in some dravya. According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. There are two states of anu- a state of motion and a state of absolute rest.
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=== Attributes of Atoms ===
 +
According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>
 
  The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).
 
  The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).
−
Each of the first five substances possess a unique quality, which makes the substance what it is. Maharshi Kanada recognized four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
+
 +
पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । १,१.४ । Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4<ref name=":0">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref>
 +
Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
 
#kshiti or earth - smell
 
#kshiti or earth - smell
 
#apa or water - taste
 
#apa or water - taste
 
#tejas or fire - color
 
#tejas or fire - color
 
#vayu or air - touch
 
#vayu or air - touch
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These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are partless and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha. Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
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These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. All other objects made by the combination of atoms are non-eternal and subject to origination as well as destruction. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.  
 +
 
 +
Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities as follows, among them its unique quality is smell or odour.<ref name=":4" />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
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* colour
 +
* taste
 +
* smell
 +
* touch
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* numerical unit
 +
* mass
 +
* weight
 +
* conjunction
 +
* disjunction
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* distance
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* proximity
 +
* gravity
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* fluidity
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* faculty
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}}
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Apa has the qualities of kshiti with the exception of smell, instead of which viscidity is present; its special quality is taste. Tejas has all the qualities of kshiti with the exception of taste, smell, and weight; its special quality is colour. Vayu has the qualities of kshiti, excepting colour, taste and smell; touch is its special quality. Maharshi Kanada outlines the special qualities of the five elements (including Akasha) as follows<ref name=":0" /> <blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । २,१.१ । rūparasagandhasparśavatī pṛthivī | 2,1.1 |
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Prithvi or earth has the qualities of form, taste, smell and touch
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 +
रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाश्च । २,१.२ । rūparasasparśavatya āpo dravāḥ snigdhāśca | 2,1.2 | 
 +
 
 +
Apa or water has form, taste, and touch; it has the characteristic of fluidty and viscidity
 +
 
 +
तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । २,१.३ । tejo rūpasparśavat | 2,1.3 |
 +
 
 +
Tejas or fire has form and touch
 +
 
 +
वायुः स्पर्शवान् । २,१.४ । vāyuḥ sparśavān | 2,1.4 |
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 +
Vayu is known by touch
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त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । २,१.५ । ta ākāśe na vidyante | 2,1.5 |
 +
 
 +
None of these exist in Akasha or ether</blockquote>Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules.<ref name=":1" />
  
 
That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.
 
That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.
  
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Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory:
+
=== Key Features of Atomic Theory ===
 +
Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory based on Nyaya and Vaiseshika texts:<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":4" />
  
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* '''Indivisibility:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter.
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#'''Indivisible:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.
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* '''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
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#'''Invisible:''' Atoms are invisible, they cannot be perceived but that is not the ground for non-existence of atoms.<ref name=":2">''The Physics of Vaisesika'' (C. S. R. Prabhu, Trans.). (2014). Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>
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* '''Four Elemental Atoms:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms: earth, water, light, and air.
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#'''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
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* '''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
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#'''Qualitative Differentiation:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.
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* '''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
+
#'''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
−
* '''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
+
#'''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
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* '''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.  
+
#'''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
 +
#'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.
 +
#'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.
 +
#'''Vibratory motion:''' According to Vaiseshika, atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
 +
#'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)
 +
#'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.
  
 
Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
 
Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
−
====Combination of Atoms====
+
===Proof of existence of Atoms===
−
Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.
+
The four kind of atoms, namely of kshiti, apa, tejas, and vayu, are characterized by their characteristic mass, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":5" /> <blockquote>महत्यनेकद्रव्यवत्त्वाद्रूपाच्चोपलब्धिः । ४,१.६ । mahatyaneka-dravyavattvād-rūpāccopalabdhiḥ | 4,1.6 |(Vais. Sutr. 4.1.6)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>'''Translation''': In Mahat (in the Universe) due to the existence of multiple substances or material entities and also due to multiple forms / shapes / colours, attainment or formation (is possible).<ref name=":2" />
  
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Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1
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Sat or Pure Existence takes multifarious forms as substances with various forms/shapes/colours i.e. the Universe is formed out of Sat or Pure Existence (Brahman in Vedanta). Atoms take different forms of agglomerations. Atoms cannot he perceived. Perception is possible only for those objects which have perceivable dimensions or measure (parimana) and have a form/shape/colour (rupa). In spite of being a large substance (or material entity), Vayu does not get perceived i.e. cannot be observed directly due to its lack of form/shape/colour. Invisibility is not a ground for non existence, as in die case of Vayu. Vayu is invisible but it has existence. So also the atoms are invisible but they exist. Vaiseshika expounded the Atomic theory wherein indivisible atoms are identified as the ultimate building blocks of all previously mentioned 9 dravyas though they cannot be perceived by the sense organs.<ref name=":2" />
  
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While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":52">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
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=== Nature of Atomic Combinations ===
 +
Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. Atoms are invisible though the final substance formed by conjunction of many such atoms is perceived by the sense organs. Atoms are driven by an inherent tendency of constant motion which is their natural property. As a result, atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine to form '''dvyanuka''' or dyad according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to modern conception. One atom unites with another under an inherent impulse to form a binary molecule or a compound of two atoms. The two like or similar atoms are the material causes for the combination while the other types of atoms are considered to play the role of supportive atoms. Two unlike atoms, i.e. an atom of earth and an atom of water cannot, it is stated, enter into combination. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref>  
  
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Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
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Maharshi Kanada, however, maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.<ref name=":5" />
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====Effect of Heat====
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A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />
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According to Prashastapada, basic unit of n dyads = 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1
 +
 
 +
These dyad combinations further combine in different proportions to form '''trayanuka''' (tertiary) '''chaturanuka''' (quarternary) and so on.<ref name=":4" /> The minimum visible is a triad, designated as Trayanuka (trasarenu) of the size of a mote in sunbeam. A triad is formed out of three dyads and so on.
 +
 
 +
While Kanada's Atoms combine = basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />
 +
 
 +
Basic unit of n atoms = 1 atom+ 1 atom…n atoms where �n≥1
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 +
Nyaya-Vaiseshika views atoms, though eternal in themselves, are non-eternal (anitya) as aggregates which may be organic or inorganic.<ref name=":4" />
 +
 
 +
=== Principle of Causality ===
 +
Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for its adherence to the principle of causality. Atoms are the material cause for a dyad, the effect. Dyads are the cause for the production of a triad which is again an effect. After the triad comes into existence, the atoms lose their causal efficiency.<ref name=":13" />
 +
 
 +
But, why do the primordial atoms unite and produce gross matter? Vaiseshika explains that there is an unseen (adristha) which sets off the process of atoms uniting to form dyads. Adrishta as an unseen force is the efficient cause of the world while atoms are its material cause.<ref name=":13" />
 +
===Effect of Heat ===
 +
A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. Heat and light, are the different forms of the same essential entity, tejas according to Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" /> The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />
  
 
- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)
 
- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)
Line 49: Line 113:
 
Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":12" />
 
Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":12" />
  
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(A) Mono-bhautic compounds :—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class.
+
(A) '''Mono-bhautic compounds:'''—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class.
  
−
(B) Hetero-bhautic compounds :—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes.
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(B) '''Hetero-bhautic compounds:'''—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes.
  
−
A nature (Tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called transmutation (Utparivartana) in scientific terms. A study on the Changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as
+
A nature (tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called '''transmutation (Utparivartana)''' in scientific terms. A study on the changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as
  
 
1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana)
 
1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana)
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In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>
 
In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>
 +
 +
=== States of Matter ===
 +
As mentioned in the Upanishads, the five elements of the nature are –<ref name=":7">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>
 +
 +
• Earth • Water • Air • Fire and • Akasa
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 +
The concept of Akasha
 +
 +
• The Earth represents the solid state
 +
 +
• The Water constitutes the liquid state
 +
 +
• The Air forms the gaseous state and
 +
 +
• The Fire constitutes of the plasma as the fourth state of matter.
 +
 +
The western scholars, though, failed to recognize and include nuclear state as part of a state of
 +
 +
matter.
 +
 +
• Akasa is a nuclear state in which few nuclear parts are stable.
  
 
== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==
 
== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==
 +
According to Samkhya the universe, as manifested evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed prakriti or avyakta, the ultimate ground. Prakriti, is an infinite, eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, indifferentiated, indeterminate continuum. This was believed to be made up of infinitesimal reals or gunas, representing substances classified under<ref name=":7" />
 +
 +
# sattva (the essence or intelligence stuff)
 +
# rajas (the energy stuff)
 +
# tamas (the inertia or matter stuffs
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
 
[[Category:Chemistry]]
 
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Latest revision as of 23:55, 12 April 2026

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Atom (Sanskrit: परमाणुः) has been described as the smallest, indivisible particle in any substance. Science and philosophy have studied through investigations and experiments, the many forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces etc., but one of the major theories studied is that of the atom.

In Indian thought, there are two naturalistic theories of the origin of the empirical world. One view accords world to be a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Nature (one becoming many), while the second views world arising out of atoms combining together in various ways (many becoming one) in a limited sense. The Sankhya represents the first, and the Vaiseshika the second view. [1]

Nyaya-Vaiseshika Atomic Theory

The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for their logically-structured atomism. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents. The concept of avayavin (whole) and avayava (constituent part) has shaped the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This school of thought uses a logical and causal framework to explain how invisible particles combine to form the visible universe.[2]

Attributes of Atoms

According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.[3] 

The Vaiseshika sutras[1], define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).

पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । १,१.४ । Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4[4]

Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna[2][5][6]

  1. kshiti or earth - smell
  2. apa or water - taste
  3. tejas or fire - color
  4. vayu or air - touch

These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. All other objects made by the combination of atoms are non-eternal and subject to origination as well as destruction. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.[1] Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).[5] Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.

Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities as follows, among them its unique quality is smell or odour.[3]

  • colour
  • taste
  • smell
  • touch
  • numerical unit
  • mass
  • weight
  • conjunction
  • disjunction
  • distance
  • proximity
  • gravity
  • fluidity
  • faculty

Apa has the qualities of kshiti with the exception of smell, instead of which viscidity is present; its special quality is taste. Tejas has all the qualities of kshiti with the exception of taste, smell, and weight; its special quality is colour. Vayu has the qualities of kshiti, excepting colour, taste and smell; touch is its special quality. Maharshi Kanada outlines the special qualities of the five elements (including Akasha) as follows[4]

रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । २,१.१ । rūparasagandhasparśavatī pṛthivī | 2,1.1 |

Prithvi or earth has the qualities of form, taste, smell and touch

रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाश्च । २,१.२ । rūparasasparśavatya āpo dravāḥ snigdhāśca | 2,1.2 |

Apa or water has form, taste, and touch; it has the characteristic of fluidty and viscidity

तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । २,१.३ । tejo rūpasparśavat | 2,1.3 |

Tejas or fire has form and touch

वायुः स्पर्शवान् । २,१.४ । vāyuḥ sparśavān | 2,1.4 |

Vayu is known by touch

त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । २,१.५ । ta ākāśe na vidyante | 2,1.5 |

None of these exist in Akasha or ether

Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules.[5]

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

Key Features of Atomic Theory

Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory based on Nyaya and Vaiseshika texts:[2][3]

  1. Indivisible: Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.
  2. Invisible: Atoms are invisible, they cannot be perceived but that is not the ground for non-existence of atoms.[7]
  3. Eternal and Unchangeable: Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
  4. Qualitative Differentiation: The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.
  5. Atoms as Building Blocks: These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
  6. Chemical Change: Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
  7. Properties of Atoms: Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
  8. Indestructible: Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.
  9. Eternal motion: Atoms are in a state of constant motion.
  10. Vibratory motion: According to Vaiseshika, atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
  11. Spherical Shape: Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)
  12. Without Magnitude: They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.

Proof of existence of Atoms

The four kind of atoms, namely of kshiti, apa, tejas, and vayu, are characterized by their characteristic mass, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.[6]

महत्यनेकद्रव्यवत्त्वाद्रूपाच्चोपलब्धिः । ४,१.६ । mahatyaneka-dravyavattvād-rūpāccopalabdhiḥ | 4,1.6 |(Vais. Sutr. 4.1.6)[4]

Translation: In Mahat (in the Universe) due to the existence of multiple substances or material entities and also due to multiple forms / shapes / colours, attainment or formation (is possible).[7]

Sat or Pure Existence takes multifarious forms as substances with various forms/shapes/colours i.e. the Universe is formed out of Sat or Pure Existence (Brahman in Vedanta). Atoms take different forms of agglomerations. Atoms cannot he perceived. Perception is possible only for those objects which have perceivable dimensions or measure (parimana) and have a form/shape/colour (rupa). In spite of being a large substance (or material entity), Vayu does not get perceived i.e. cannot be observed directly due to its lack of form/shape/colour. Invisibility is not a ground for non existence, as in die case of Vayu. Vayu is invisible but it has existence. So also the atoms are invisible but they exist. Vaiseshika expounded the Atomic theory wherein indivisible atoms are identified as the ultimate building blocks of all previously mentioned 9 dravyas though they cannot be perceived by the sense organs.[7]

Nature of Atomic Combinations

Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. Atoms are invisible though the final substance formed by conjunction of many such atoms is perceived by the sense organs. Atoms are driven by an inherent tendency of constant motion which is their natural property. As a result, atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine to form dvyanuka or dyad according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to modern conception. One atom unites with another under an inherent impulse to form a binary molecule or a compound of two atoms. The two like or similar atoms are the material causes for the combination while the other types of atoms are considered to play the role of supportive atoms. Two unlike atoms, i.e. an atom of earth and an atom of water cannot, it is stated, enter into combination. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.[8]

Maharshi Kanada, however, maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.[6]

According to Prashastapada, basic unit of n dyads = 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

These dyad combinations further combine in different proportions to form trayanuka (tertiary) chaturanuka (quarternary) and so on.[3] The minimum visible is a triad, designated as Trayanuka (trasarenu) of the size of a mote in sunbeam. A triad is formed out of three dyads and so on.

While Kanada's Atoms combine = basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units[6]

Basic unit of n atoms = 1 atom+ 1 atom…n atoms where �n≥1

Nyaya-Vaiseshika views atoms, though eternal in themselves, are non-eternal (anitya) as aggregates which may be organic or inorganic.[3]

Principle of Causality

Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for its adherence to the principle of causality. Atoms are the material cause for a dyad, the effect. Dyads are the cause for the production of a triad which is again an effect. After the triad comes into existence, the atoms lose their causal efficiency.[2]

But, why do the primordial atoms unite and produce gross matter? Vaiseshika explains that there is an unseen (adristha) which sets off the process of atoms uniting to form dyads. Adrishta as an unseen force is the efficient cause of the world while atoms are its material cause.[2]

Effect of Heat

A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. Heat and light, are the different forms of the same essential entity, tejas according to Vaiseshika.[5] The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance[8]

- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)

- transformation of the character of the atoms

- recombination of paramanus with a new basic unit arrangement and order resulting in a new substance.

The Vaisheshikas hold that under the influence of heat, substances are broken down to the most basic entity (paramanu) before being transformed in to a new substance whereas the Nyaya school does not believe in decomposition in to the very basic entity.[9]

Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.[8]

(A) Mono-bhautic compounds:—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class.

(B) Hetero-bhautic compounds:—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes.

A nature (tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called transmutation (Utparivartana) in scientific terms. A study on the changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as

1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana)

2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana)

The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting.

In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.[10]

States of Matter

As mentioned in the Upanishads, the five elements of the nature are –[11]

• Earth • Water • Air • Fire and • Akasa

The concept of Akasha

• The Earth represents the solid state

• The Water constitutes the liquid state

• The Air forms the gaseous state and

• The Fire constitutes of the plasma as the fourth state of matter.

The western scholars, though, failed to recognize and include nuclear state as part of a state of

matter.

• Akasa is a nuclear state in which few nuclear parts are stable.

Samkhya Theory of Matter

According to Samkhya the universe, as manifested evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed prakriti or avyakta, the ultimate ground. Prakriti, is an infinite, eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, indifferentiated, indeterminate continuum. This was believed to be made up of infinitesimal reals or gunas, representing substances classified under[11]

  1. sattva (the essence or intelligence stuff)
  2. rajas (the energy stuff)
  3. tamas (the inertia or matter stuffs

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Gupta, B. (2012). An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom. Routledge.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 461-469
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Vaiseshika Sutras
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Ray, P. (1956) History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray. Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Narayan, R. (2007). Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 The Physics of Vaisesika (C. S. R. Prabhu, Trans.). (2014). Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Ray, P. (1956) History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray. Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society
  9. ↑ Gupta, B. (2012). An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom. Routledge.
  10. ↑ Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 5(4), 43. https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. Journal of Technology, 267–268.
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