Agnihotra (अग्निहोत्रम्)

Agnihotram (Samskrit : अग्निहोत्रम्) generically is referred to Agni in a yagnavedi (altar) invoked by the chanting of mantras during homas and for samskaraas. However, Agnihotram as a specific nityakarma refers to a vedic process whereby a grihastha makes daily offerings of ghee or milk in Agni while reciting the prescribed vedic mantras.

Sanatana Dharma is founded on the principle that the primary responsibility of perpetually maintaining Agni at home, called as Agnihotram, is vested with a grihastha. Apart from grihastha's nitya Agnihotra many other events like yagnas, yaagas, isthis, and homas involve the kindling of fire according to karmakanda procedures given in Samhitas and Brahmanas.

In the present days, very rarely, grihasthas are maintaining Agni at homes nor are conducting regular Agnihotra rituals as prescribed by sastras. However, Agni is invoked in every occasion (auspicious and inauspicious) of dharmic life, from Nityayagnas, yagas in temples, in special homas during housewarming and grahashanti, upanayana and other samskara celebrations, at weddings (the yajna where the bride and groom circle the fire seven times) and lastly for Anteysti (cremation).  

Elaborately conducted yaagas such as Soma yaagas are not widely performed, while Varuna yaagam and Kareeresti for propitiating Varuna devata to obtain good rains is performed at regular intervals as temple activities for community benefit.  

परिचय || Introduction

The history of Vedic rituals is quite ancient and can be traced to the period of Vedic Samhithas. A few definitions here would throw light on the terms used in this context.  

Yagna : A common and general term used to denote all satkarmas (good deeds) and encompasses several aspects such as worship, praise, pleasing of a deity, a purpose to achieve, a yaaga, an oblation and could be a mental (Jnana) or physically ritualistic process (Kratu) which may or may not include the piling of Agnihotra. An unmarried man is not allowed by sastras to perform any special yagnas or yaagas. A brahmachari is restricted to perform only some vaidika kriyas.  

Bhagavad geeta gives the process of Jnanayagna. Adhiyagnam katham 8 .2 bhagavadgeeta Karma brahmo 3.15 bhagavadgeeta Yagnanardhat karmano yatra 3.9 Bhagavadgeeta 9.15 Jnana yagne, 9.16  

Yaagam : Yaagas are elaborate rituals with specific names (in contrast to Yagna which is a general name) involving Agnihotra with special offering of suitable dravyas (havis such as purodaasa, milk, ghee, etc) to the devatas. Some yaagas last for one day to three or more days even up to 12 years. Example: Sarpa sattra yaga was performed by King Janamejaya where all sarpas serpents were destroyed in the yaaga fire.  

A ‘Yaaga’ is made up of several rituals which has its own principal part (Pradhana). Those that form subsidiary or supplement to this are called ‘Angas’. Some of the rituals may be common to several ‘Yaagas’.  

A Yaaga is specialized vedic process involving an uddesa or intention (sankalpa) towards a particular deity, an altar (yajnakunda), a host (yajamaana), sacrificial offerings of various kinds (kratuvu, bali), utensils, sacred fire (yagagni), one or more officiating priests (purohita), gifts (dakshina) for the priests and guests, expiation ceremony (prayaschitta) and other concluding rituals. They are performed in open or in a house, temple, palace or a temporary structure (yajnavatika) built for the purpose.

In Yaagas, yajamani offers the aahuti, in a standing position, using the utterance "vaushat" at the end of mantras for the deity. Thus the ceremonies which are performed with the root "yaj" are yaagas like in "somena yajeta".

Homa : Homa refers to both the small scale rituals involving specially constructed altars with Agnihotra such as in navagraha homa conducted for grihapravesam (housewarming) to larger scale rituals such as Chandi homa conducted in temples. Homas are usually conducted as Angas for mantrajapams and do not involve all the vedic procedures.

In Homam yajamani offers the aahuti, in a seated position, using the utterance "svaaha" at the end of mantras for the deity. Thus the ceremonies which are performed with the root "hu" are Homas like in "agnihotram juhuyaat".

In present days, homas are being conducted by women priests but that aspect is outside the purview of the nitya agnihotram.

Srauta Yaagas

Different classifications of Yaagas may be taken into consideration based on the offerings and time period of conducting them.

Vedic yagnas/yaagas are divided into

• Prakritiyaaga (Prinicipal)
• Vikritiyaaga (Subsidiary)

Vikritiyaagas derive their procedures from the respective Prakritiyaagas.

Prakritiyaagas

In the Asvalaayana Srautasutra based on the Rig Veda, there are a number yagnas but five among them are regarded as Prakritiyaagas. In the present days Prakriti yagnas mentioned in the Vedas are rarely conducted.

1. Homa : Agnihotra is the Prakriti (model) of all Homas
2. Isthti : Darsapurnamaasa yaga is the Prakriti (model) of all Isthis
3. Pasu : Nirudha Pasubandha is the Prakriti (model) of Pasu yaaga
4. Soma : Agnistoma is the Prakriti (model) of all the Somayagas.
5. Sattra : Gavaamayana is the Prakriti (model) of all Satrayagas.

Vikritiyaagas

The subsidiary rituals follow their respective principal sacrifices in the performance of different sacrifices. Vikriti Yaganas like Chandika Homa, Veda Samhita Svahakara Yagas, Rudra Yagas are being performed in temples.

In the context the kindling of fire, the Agnihotram mentioned as nitya karma has been discussed here and only a brief mention of Agnihotram as a part of vedic ritual during different occasions has been made.

Agnihotram

Agnihotra, is a term specifically applicable to the most common and important vaidika yagnas classified among the haviryajñas (offering of havis is made) or homas, and considered to be nityakarma (daily activity). It is performed as a daily worship and also with an intent to fulfill any specific desire. A brief outline of the various aspects about Agnihotram have been summarized below

Agnyaadhana/Agnaadheya

Agnaadheya is technically the process by which the sacred fire or agnihotram is newly established in the kundas along with the chanting of mantras as prescribed by Srauta sutras. This process is generally similar across all vedic srauta sutras, with a few differences. Some aspects are as follows

Nakshatras

This ceremony is performed when chandra (moon) is situated in certain nakshatras. Krittika, rohini, margasira, phalguni, vishakha and uttara, hasta, chitta and sravana stars are preferred according to different Srauta sutras

कृत्तिकासु रोहिण्यां मृगशिरसि फल्गुनीषु विशाखयोरुत्तरयोः प्रोष्ठपदयोः ॥ १० (Asva. Srau. Sutr. 2.1.10)

kr̥ttikāsu rōhiṇyāṁ mr̥gaśirasi phalgunīṣu viśākhayōruttarayōḥ prōṣṭhapadayōḥ ॥ 10 (Asva. Srau. Sutr. 2.1.10)

कृत्तिकासु ब्राह्मण आदधीत मुख्यो ब्रह्मवर्चसी भवति ॥ ३ गृहांस्तस्याग्निर्दाहुको भवति ॥ ४ (Apas. Srau. Sutr. 5.3.3)

kr̥ttikāsu brāhmaṇa ādadhīta mukhyō brahmavarcasī bhavati ॥ 3 gr̥hāṁstasyāgnirdāhukō bhavati ॥ 4 (Apas. Srau. Sutr. 5.3.3 and 4)

Seasons

The people of different sections are advised to establish fire in different seasons - Brahmanas in vasanta or spring season, while the kshatriya and vaishya varnas can establish it in summer, rainy and autumn seasons.

Yajamani

A sapatinika yajamana should perform this homa daily in the morning with milk, obtained separately from the cow reared for this purpose (agnihotra gaabhi).

• If the yajamāna (performer of the sacrifice) goes on a pilgrimage along with his wife, he can carry the gārhapatya fire with him or can ceremonially put it out and perform punarādhāna (re-establishing the fire) on his return. When he dies, the various wooden implements used by him for Agnihotra should be kept on various parts of his body as prescribed and then his body is cremated with the gārhapatya fire.  
• Wife, son, pupil or a priest can perform Agnihotram on behalf of the yajamani in case of emergencies. Agnihotra cannot be performed by a widower, however on remarriage a widower becomes eligible to perform all yagnas. When the yajamana is separated from his wife and he chooses not to remarry, he can instill his wife's idol for the process of the yaaga. Example : Aswamedha yaaga performed by Sri Ramachandra in Ayodhya while his consort Seetadevi was in Valmiki Maharshi's ashram following the sastra laid down exceptions to some situations.(Ramayana reference needed)  

Havis/Havishya

Milk is the main dravya for offered as havis in the agnihotra.

पयसा नित्यहोमः १ payasā nityahōmaḥ 1 (Asva. Srau. Sutr 2.3.2)

The performer of Agnihotra is obliged to rear a cow primarily for providing milk as havis to devatas. The milk vessel which must be an earthen pot with a straight brim is called ‘agnihotra-sthālī’ and the ladle is called ‘agnihotrahavaṇī.’

Kaamyakarma

Although performing agnihotra is a regular activity, it is also performed to attain some special desires called as Kaamyakarma with varying aahutidravyas.

यवागूरोदनो दधि समिग्रामकामान्नाद्यकामेन्द्रियकाम-तेजस्कामानां २ (Asva. Srau. Sutr 2.3.2)

yavāgūrōdanō dadhi samigrāmakāmānnādyakāmēndriyakāma-tējaskāmānāṁ 2 (Asva. Srau. Sutr 2.3.2)

Meaning : Yavaagu (gruel of Yavagu rice) is offered for acquiring leadership over villages, and curd is offered for attaining strength.

Agni Manthana

Agni manthana is the process by which the fire is generated by the manthana (literally churning) or friction of two sami sticks. Rig veda mentions the process of kindling of fire from Arani (fire sticks) made from Sami and Asvattha trees. The stick on top called the Uttara-arani is called Pururavas (Indra) and the lower arani called as Aadhara-arani is called Urvasi (Apsara). The rope used for manthana is called rasanaa. The process of generating fire is also described in various Srauta sutra texts as given in Taittriya Brahmana in the पौरोडाशिक काण्ड under अग्न्याधानम prapathaka .

शमीगर्भादग्निं मन्थति । एषा वा अग्नेर्यज्ञिया तनूः । (Tait. Brah. 1.1.9.1)

śamīgarbhādagniṁ manthati । ēṣā vā agnēryajñiyā tanūḥ । (Tait. Brah. 1.1.9.1)

Meaning : From the hearth of sami (sticks) Agni is churned. This is the yagna body of Agni.

Samidha

Agnaadheya ceremony starts with the collection of arani (the samidha wood) and ends in purnaahuti (offering at the end of ceremony). Once the fire is kindled, it is maintained by the addition of smaller pieces of wood called Samidhas. The trees from which samidhas are obtained include : palaasa, asvattha, nygrodha, sami, aamra, khadira.

Kunda/Vedi

Kunda or Vedi (altar) is another important aspect of yagnas and yaagas including those for nitya agnihotra in homes. They are of different sizes and shapes depending on the type of fire and yaaga being performed. For temporary domestic purposes in the present days movable copper kundaas are used, while some prepare altars with sand and a few bricks.

Brahmachari Agnikaryam

It is prescribed by sastras that all the dvijas (the ‘twice-born,’ the men of the first three varṇas) are eligible to perform Agnihotra. A brahmachari is initiated into performing Agnihotram during Upanayana with prescribed procedures and is taught the relevant mantras to conduct the agnihotram. At the time of investing the yagnopaveeta, he is taught to perform daily aahuti in the fire called Praajapatyaagni. (recheck).

Grihastha Aupasana

During vivaha samskara the one is initiated to enter the grihasta ashram by setting up the Aavasatyaagni to the north of the vedi. (Paaraskara Grhya Sutra : Adhyaya 1 Kandika 2 Mantra 1)

आवसथ्याधानं दारकाले १ दायाद्यकाल एकेषाम् २ ॥ āvasathyādhānaṁ dārakālē 1 dāyādyakāla ēkēṣām 2 (Para.Grhy.Sutra. 1.2.1).

Meaning : The setting up of Aavasatya agni is (performed) at the time of wedding. At the time of inheritance according to some.

He receives additional procedures to perform nitya Agnihotram. A few features include

• Starting after marriage, a grihasta (along with his wife) offers aahuti twice daily at twilight time (dawn and dusk) in the Gaarhapatya agni, this is also called as Aupasana. For Ex: Valmiki Ramayana states that Sri Ramachandra and Lakshmana tended agnihotram while they lived in Panchavati (Ramayana reference needed).
• Every grihastha has to maintain Agnihotra until he is prevented by old age or illness or death. In case where he cannot perform it on behalf of him his son, brother or son-in-law. According to Satapatha Brahmana

  एतद्वै जरामर्यं सत्रं यदग्निहोत्रं जरया वा ह्येवास्मान्मुच्यते मृत्युना वा (Sata. Brah. 7.4.1.1)

  ētadvai jarāmaryaṁ satraṁ yadagnihōtraṁ jarayā vā hyēvāsmānmucyatē mr̥tyunā vā (Sata. Brah. 7.4.1.1)

  Summary: this agnihotram is 'jaraamarya satra' because he can get relief from this only if he dies or becomes old.

• Performance of nitya agnihotra is mandated to the grihasta men of all three varnas. If due to any reason, a grihasta has not conducted agnihotra rituals, he can do so after performing the praayaschitta vidhis as given in the Srauta sastras.
• As a nityakriya agnihotra, Anuditahomi's perform homa before sunrise and some Uditahomi's after sunset.
• Morning aahutis are made to the deities Surya and Prajapati, while the evening aahutis are made to Agni and Prajapati.

• Nitya agnihotra is not to be performed by an uninitiated bachelor or women (Reference needed).

Aahitagni

Aahitagni is the sapatinika yajamani who has established the agnihotra by performing the Agnyadheya ceremony.

• The grihastha who never performed any Haviryagna and never studied Vedas, and whose father or forefathers never performed yaaga are not eligible to perform some yaagas/yagnas. Example : Somayaaga.
• Eligibility for a grihastha to perform other yaagas or yagnas will be obtained once he regularly performs Aupaasana at his house on a daily basis and after he learns the relevant vaidika procedures to conduct them . For example: Agnisthoma is the first of the 5 Jyotisthomas or Somayaaga. Performance of haviryagna and some isthis is a prerequisite for conducting a Somayaaga.

The tradition of ‘Aahitagnis’ and ‘Srauta priests’ continues in South India and they perform Vedic rituals as and when possible. These priests inherited the tradition of Vedic ritual practices from their ancestors and perform Vedic rituals even today.

त्रेताज्ञयः ॥ Three Fires

All Srauta yagnas or yaagas are associated with त्रेताज्ञयः the three Agni's. However, not all three fires are lighted and maintained at all times. While Aupasana is performed with the Gaarhapatya Agni, त्रेताज्ञयः the three fires are kindled in Somayaagas.

A few important features of the three agnis are summarized below

गार्हपत्याग्निः ॥ Gaarhapatya Agni

Information about of गार्हपत्याग्निः ॥ Gaarhapatya agni

• It is used by grihastas for general domestic usage, to cook food and aahutidravyas used in other yagnas by reciting mantras.
• It is placed to the west of the yagnavedi and placed in circular shaped kunda.
• It is ceremonially established with the elaborate vedic procedure involving recitation of specific mantras and is called Agnyādhāna.
• It is rekindled by a special process called "Punaradhana" if it gets extinguished for any reason.
• It is used in nityakarmas.
• It is the only Agni that is maintained continuously and daily aahutis are to be made to this Agni by a grihastha.
• It is the source of other two Agnis
• It is kindled after marriage and and is be worshipped for the rest of the life by the grihastha.
• Only a sapatnika yajamani (grihastha) of the three varnas is allowed to tend the Agnihotram.

आहवनीयाग्निः ॥ Aahvaniya Agni

Some salient aspects about आहवनीयाग्निः ॥ Aahvaniya Agni are as follows

• It is invoked only in special aabhicharika yaagas unlike Gaarhapatya agni.
• The first Aahvaniya agni is established from the Gaarhapatya agni along with the recitation of specific mantras.
• It is not maintained everyday and is extinguished at the end of the specific yaaga for which it is invoked.
• It is placed to the east of the yagnavedi, in a rectangular shaped kunda.
• It is used to offer aahutis to the devatas only.

दक्षिणाग्निः ॥ Dakshinaagni

Salient aspects about दक्षिणाग्निः ॥ Dakshinaagni is as follows

• It is invoked only in special yaagas similar to Aahvaniya agni.
• The first Dakshinaagni is established from the Gaarhapatya agni along with the recitation of specific mantras during yagna karmas.
• It is not maintained everyday and is extinguished at the end of the specific yaagam for which it is invoked.
• It is placed to the south of the yagnavedi, in a half circle shaped kunda.
• It is used to offer aahutis to the pitrudevatas or forefathers only.

Shatapata Brahmana (11.8.2) mentions about four different fires

११.८.२ अग्नेश्चातुर्विध्याभिधायकं ब्राह्मणम्

चत्वारो ह वा अग्नयः। आहित उद्धृतः प्रहृतो विहृतोऽयमेव लोक आहितोऽन्तरिक्षलोक उद्धृतो द्यौष्प्रहृतो दिशो विहृतोऽग्निरेवाहितो वायुरुद्धृत आदित्यः प्रहृतश्चन्द्रमा विहृतो गार्हपत्य एवाहित आहवनीय उद्धृतोऽथ यमेतमाहवनीयात्प्राञ्चं प्रणयन्ति स प्रहृतोऽथ यमेतमुदञ्चम्पशुश्रपणायाहरन्ति यं चोपयङ्भ्यः स विहृतस्तस्मात्प्रहार्येऽग्नौ पशुबन्धेन यजेत - ११.८.२.[१]

Aahutis (Offerings) in Agnihotram

Aahuti is an important aspect of Agnihotram. Different types dravayas are offered as aahuti which changes according to the yaagas, the fires being worshipped and purpose of the yaaga. The dravyas or materials being offered in agnihotram are of the following kinds

1. Vegetable source : Soma juice, tila (sesame),
2. Uncooked Animal source : Payaha (Milk) and milk products like dadhi (curds), ajyam (ghee), navanita (butter). Vaapa (animal fat), honey and wine.
3. Cooked Animals/Pasu Offerings : Body parts of Goat, Cow, Sheep and Horse.
4. Cooked : Purodasa (made of powdered rice), Odana (cooked rice), Laajah (baked rice), yavaagu (rice gruel)

Based on the type of yaagas the important aahuti's are

• For Agnihotram : Milk
• For Isthi : Purodasa
• For Pasu : Pasu sacrifice (goat). Aswamedha yaaga - horse.
• For Soma yaagas : Soma juice

Yaagakunda Vedi

Temples (and in some homes of aahitagni's) have the brick structures for the conduct of agnihotram. Temples also have designated yaaga-shalas.

Pradhana vedi, Uttara vedi are used to set up altars. Mahavedis are used when there is a requirement of wide spaces. Pasuvedis are used in Pasuyaagas. A large vedi, in the shape of Syena (eagle) is used for Somayaaga.

Sulva sutras are the texts that describe the dimensions and geometric measurements, materials for constructing the yaaga-kunda. The yaaga-kunda for the three agnis are

1. Gaarhapatya agni - It is placed to the west of the place and kindled in circular shaped kunda.
2. Aahvaniya agni - It is placed to the east of the place, in a rectangular shaped kunda.
3. Dakshinaagni - It is placed to the south of the place, in a semi-circular (ardhachandra) shaped kunda.

Haviryagnas

According the Srauta sutras, there are seven Haviryagnas.

Paaka yagnas

As given below according to सुदर्शनसूरेः तात्पर्यदर्शनम् गृह्यतात्पर्यदर्शनव्याख्या १.१ of Aapasthamba Grhyasutras there are 7 Paakayagnas

तत्र च सप्त पाकयज्ञसंस्थाः औपासनहोमो, वैश्वदेवं, पार्वण, मष्टका, मासिश्राद्धं, सर्पबलिं, रीशानबलिरिति । They involve cooking of food (paka) for offering to gods. They go by different names such as aṣtaka, sthālipāka, parvana, srāvaṇi, āgrahayani, etc.

Soma yagnas

These sacrifices involved the extraction of Soma and its offering to Soma, Indra and their companion gods. Examples of Soma sacrifices are Agnistoma, atyagnistoma, uktya, shodasi, vājapeya etc.

सप्तैव च सोमसंस्थाःग्निष्टोमो,ऽत्याग्निष्टोम, उक्थ्य, ष्योडशी, वाजपेयो,ऽतिरात्रोऽप्तोर्याम इति ।

Havir yagnas

In these sacrifices, the priests poured oblations of milk, vegetable oil, sesame oil, clarified butter, honey and other liquid offerings. Agniyādhāna, Agnihotra, Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa, Agrayana, Cāturmāsya, Sautrāmaṇi are a few important Havir yajnas

सप्त च हविर्यज्ञसंस्थाःग्निहोत्रं, दर्शपूर्णमासा, वाग्रयणं, चातुर्मास्यानि, निरूढपशुबन्धस्, सौत्रामणिः, पिण्डपितृयज्ञादयो दर्वीहोमा इति । (५)

Panchamahayagnas

They are performed daily by the householders.

Vedavratas

These were meant to mark the progress of a student’s education under a teacher and his success in attaining the knowledge of the Vedas, while keeping his vows of celibacy and secrecy until his graduation as a Snataka (one who has bathed and was ready for the life of a householder or an apprentice).

Shodasa Samskaras

They are performed at different times in the life of an individual and involved homas and istis.

A few yagnas described in the Samhitas and Brahmanas include the following

Agnichayana 

Agnistoma 

Darsapurnamaasa 

Chaturmasya 

Somayagnas 

Pashumedha (Asvamedha) 

Yaagas/Yagnas without Agnihotram

Invocation of Agni in a vedi (altar) and offering of aahutis is performed in yagnas. However, not all yagnas involve this process.

External and internal rituals

We may also classify Vedic sacrifices into external and internal rituals, depending upon how they are performed. External rituals are physical, in which offerings are externally made to devatas. Internal rituals are mental or spiritual, in which the mind and the senses were withdrawn and engaged in contemplative or meditative practices, which culminated in self-absorption. In the internal rituals, the sacrificial model is internalized. The mind and the body become the field or the sacrificial pit, breath becomes fire, whatever that is offered to the body such as food or pleasure becomes the offering.  

The sage of the Atharvaveda (Sukta 19.55.3) prays to the fire for happiness and peace, for a happy temperament, resolve and good health, for strength and mental contentment, and as the ladder to spirituality. The sage also states that Agnihotra destroys enemies.^{[note 5]}

Shatapatha Brahmana (SB 3.1.3.18) tells us that Agnihotra should be performed by the performer knowing that he will gain the strength and victories gained by Agni who conquered the earth, Vayu, the air and Surya, the sky, with whom he shares the world; and the same text further tells us that the Agnihotra, doubtless, is the Sun.^[38]

Contemporary fire ritual === Hindus consider it as the duty of a man to perform Agnihotra. The main offering is milk, and at the end, the sacrificer offers four water oblations, to the gods, to father and the fathers, to the seven seers and to Agni on earth.^[39] The priest invokes Agni through Agni in his sacrificial form; the sacrificial form of Agni is the Sun which shining brightly appears to all men. The priest also invokes Vayu which is Agni’s own greatness. Therefore, Agni as the deity is treated differently from Agni, the messenger who carries oblations to the gods. The sacrificial form of Agni is Aditya and Vayu.

Discussion

Ritual versus knowledge is a much debated topic. Shankara in his commentary on the Brahma Sutras states that the rightful observance of the agnihotra and other rites are meant for those desirous of attaining Heaven and other enjoyments, and the understanding of the rightful doctrine of the Soul is meant for those desirous of emancipation. Refence needed