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{{Hindu scriptures}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
'''Hindu texts''' are manuscripts and historic literature related to any of the diverse traditions within [[Hinduism]]. A few texts are shared resources across these traditions and broadly considered as Hindu scriptures.<ref>Frazier, Jessica (2011), The Continuum companion to Hindu studies, London: Continuum, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 1–15</ref><ref name=goodallix/> These include the [[Veda]]s and the [[Upanishad]]s. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scripture" given the diverse nature of [[Hinduism]],<ref name=goodallix>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page ix-xliii</ref><ref name=klausscrip/> many include [[Bhagavad Gita]] and [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] as Hindu scriptures,<ref name=goodallix/><ref name=klausscrip>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 46-52, 76-77</ref><ref>RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-0679410782, pages 1-11 and Preface</ref> while Dominic Goodall includes [[Bhagavata Purana]] and [[Yajnavalkya Smriti]] to the list of Hindu scriptures.<ref name=goodallix/>
There are two historic classifications of [[Hindu]] texts: ''[[Shruti]]'' – that which is heard,<ref name=jamessruti/> and ''[[Smriti]]'' – that which is remembered.<ref name=jamesmriti/> The ''Śruti'' refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient [[religious text]]s, without any author, comprising the central canon of [[Hinduism]].<ref name=jamessruti>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 9780823931798, page 645</ref> It includes the four [[Vedas]] including its four types of embedded texts - the [[Samhita]]s, the [[Brahmana]]s, the [[Aranyaka]]s and the early [[Upanishads]].<ref name=wendydof>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-1867-6, pages 2-3</ref> Of the ''Shrutis'' (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.<ref name=olivelleexcel/><ref name=wendydonigerupan>Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref>
The ''Smriti'' texts are a specific body of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] texts attributed to an author,<ref name="wendydof"/> as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than ''Sruti'' in Hinduism.<ref name=jamesmriti>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 656-657</ref> The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to [[Vedanga|Vedāngas]], the Hindu epics, the [[Dharmasutras|Sutras and Shastras]], the texts of [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophies]], the [[Puranas]], the Kāvya or poetical literature, the ''Bhasyas'', and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.<ref name=bilimoriasmrti>Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130</ref><ref name="Roy Perrett 1998 pages 16-18">Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824820855, pages 16-18</ref>
Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in [[Sanskrit]], many others in regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] and some in Western languages.<ref name=goodallix/> Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennia before they were written down into manuscripts.<ref name=michaelwitzel68>[[Michael Witzel]], "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5, pages 68-71</ref><ref name=graham67/> This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.<ref name=michaelwitzel68/><ref name=graham67>William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521448208, pages 67-77</ref>
==The Vedas==
{{Main|Vedas}}
{{multiple image
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The Vedas are a large body of Hindu texts originating in [[Vedic period|ancient India]], before about 300 BCE. Composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], the texts constitute the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit literature]] and the oldest scriptures of [[Hinduism]].<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}; ''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|p=3}}; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and {{IAST|Upaniṣads}}", in: {{Harvnb|Flood|2003|p=68}}; {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}; ''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>Sanujit Ghose (2011). "[http://www.ancient.eu.com/article/230/ Religious Developments in Ancient India]" in ''Ancient History Encyclopedia''.</ref> Hindus consider the Vedas to be ''[[apauruṣeya]]'', which means "not of a man, superhuman"<ref>Vaman Shivaram Apte, [http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~tjun/sktdic/ ''The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary''], see apauruSeya</ref> and "impersonal, authorless".<ref>D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, ISBN , pages 196-197</ref><ref>Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195384963, page 290</ref><ref>Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, ISBN 978-1409466819, page 128</ref>
Vedas are also called ''{{IAST|[[śruti]]}}'' ("what is heard") literature,<ref>{{Harvnb|Apte|1965|p=887}}</ref> distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called ''{{IAST|[[smṛti]]}}'' ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the [[Deity]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Müller|1891|pp=17–18}}</ref> In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to [[Brahma]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8XO3Im3OMi8C&pg=PA86&dq=brahma+created+vedas&hl=en&sa=X&ei=W_MZUt71GMXJrAecvoCoCg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata] Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pages 85-86</ref>
There are four Vedas: the [[Rigveda]], the [[Yajurveda]], the [[Samaveda]] and the [[Atharvaveda]].<ref name=gflood/><ref>Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977</ref> Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the [[Samhita]]s (mantras and benedictions), the [[Aranyakas]] (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the [[Brahmanas]] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the [[Upanishads]] (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).<ref name=gflood>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 35-39</ref><ref name="A Bhattacharya 2006 pages 8-14">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0595384556, pages 8-14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195332612, page 285</ref><ref name="Jan Gonda 1975">Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447016032</ref>
==The Upanishads==
{{Main|Upanishad}}
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}{{refn|group=note|These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}}}
The Upanishads are commonly referred to as ''[[Vedānta]]'', variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the [[Vedas|Veda]]" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up The Upanishads], Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1</ref> The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishad]]s,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=59}}<ref name=ptraju/> and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36</ref> The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<ref name=wendydonigerupan/><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; '''Quote''': "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";<br />Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210</ref> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.<ref name=olivelleexcel>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; '''Quote''': "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref><ref name=wendydonigerupan/>
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads.<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1</ref><ref>E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299</ref> The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyakas]]''{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=56}} and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down [[oral tradition|verbally]]. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),<ref name=olivelleintro>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 12-14</ref> down to the [[Maurya period]].{{sfn|King|Ācārya|p=52|1995}} Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the [[Muktika]] canon, composed from about the start of common era through [[History of Hinduism|medieval Hinduism]]. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.{{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=12}}{{sfn|Varghese|2008|p=101}}
==Post-Vedic texts==
[[File:Bhagavad Gita, a 19th century manuscript.jpg|thumb|A 19th century manuscript of the Hindu text [[Bhagavad Gita]]]]
The texts that appeared afterwards were called [[smriti]]. Smriti literature includes various Shastras and ''Itihasa''s (epics like [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]]), [[Harivamsa]] [[Puranas]], [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agama]]s and [[Darshana]]s.
The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to later half of the 1st millennium BCE. The [[Dharmashastra|Dharma-shastra]]s (law books), derivatives of the [[Dharmasutras|Dharma-sutras]]. Other examples were ''bhautikashastra'' "physics", ''[[rasayana]]shastra'' "chemistry", ''jīvashastra'' "biology", ''[[Vastu shastra|vastushastra]]'' "architectural science", ''[[Shilpa Shastras|shilpashastra]]'' "science of sculpture", ''arthashastra'' "economics" and ''nītishastra'' "political science".<ref>Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447026765</ref> It also includes Tantra and Agama literature.<ref>Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447020916, pages 7-14</ref>
This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, pages 2-5</ref><ref>Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0779-2</ref>
==The Bhagavad Gita==
{{Main|Bhagavad Gita}}
The Bhagavad Gita is a 700–verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic ''Mahabharata''. This scripture contains a conversation between [[Pandava]] prince [[Arjuna]] and his guide Krishna on a variety of philosophical issues. Commentators see the setting of the Gita in a battlefield as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of the human life. The Bhagavad Gita's call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the [[Indian independence movement]] including [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], who referred to the Gita as his "spiritual dictionary". Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on the essentials, beginning with [[Adi Sankara]]'s commentary on the Gita in the 8th century CE.
==The Puranas==
{{Main|Puranas}}
The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.<ref name=oliverleaman437>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 437-439</ref> Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,<ref name=johncort185>John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791413821, pages 185-204</ref><ref name=gregorybailey>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, page 139</ref> several of these texts are named after major [[Hindu]] deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.<ref name=ludorocher>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21</ref><ref name="Nair 2008 266">{{cite book|last=Nair|first=Shantha N.|title=Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice|year=2008|publisher=Hindology Books|isbn=978-81-223-1020-7|page=266|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekehXVP3W8wC&pg=PA266}}</ref>
There are 18 ''Maha Puranas'' (Great Puranas) and 18 ''Upa Puranas'' (Minor Puranas),<ref name=corneliadimmitt4/> with over 400,000 verses.<ref name=oliverleaman437/> The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,<ref name=corneliadimmitt4>Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, ISBN 978-8120839724, page xii, 4</ref> but are considered a [[Smriti]].<ref>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, page 503</ref> These Hindu texts have been influential in the [[Hindu culture]], inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 12-13, 134-156, 203-210</ref> The [[Bhagavata Purana]] has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.<ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page xli</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Richard L.|title=The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10|year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-1919-1|page=10}}</ref>
== The Tevaram Saivite hymns ==
The [[Tevaram]] is a body of remarkable hymns exuding Bhakti composed more than 1400–1200 years ago in the classical Tamil language by three Saivite composers. They are credited with igniting the Bhakti movement in the whole of India.
==Divya Prabandha Vaishnavite hymns==
The [[Nalayira Divya Prabandham|Nalayira Divya Prabandha]] (or Nalayira (4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD [1], by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are known as the Divya Desams.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}
In South India, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered as equal to the Vedas, hence the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100+ verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaaril Maaran Sadagopan) of Thiruk Kurugoor.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}
==Other Hindu texts==
Ancient and medieval era Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows,
{| class="wikitable sortable"|-
! Field !! Reviewer !! Reference
|-
|Agriculture and food || Gyula Wojtilla || <ref>Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447053068</ref>
|-
|Architecture || P Acharya,<br>B Dagens ||<ref>PK Acharya (1946), [https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture], Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6</ref><ref>Bruno Dagens (1995), MAYAMATA : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography, ISBN 978-8120835252</ref>
|-
|Devotionalism || Karen Pechelis ||<ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903</ref>
|-
|Drama, dance and performance arts || AB Keith,<br>Rachel Baumer and James Brandon,<br>Mohan Khokar || <ref>[https://archive.org/details/SanskritDrama-KeithA.Berriedale The Sanskrit Drama], Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Rachel Baumer and James Brandon (1993), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8-120807723</ref><ref>Mohan Khokar (1981), Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, Peter Owen Publishers, ISBN 978-0720605747</ref>
|-
|Education, school system || Hartmut Scharfe ||<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004125568</ref>
|-
|Epics || John Brockington || <ref>John Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004102606</ref>
|-
|Gnomic and didactic literature || Ludwik Sternbach ||<ref>Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 9783447015462</ref>
|-
|Grammar || Hartmut Scharfe || <ref>Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228</ref>
|-
|Law and jurisprudence || J Duncan M Derrett ||<ref>J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447015195</ref>
|-
|Lexicography || Claus Vogel || <ref>Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228</ref>
|-
|Mathematics and exact sciences || Kim Plofker<br>David Pingree ||<ref>Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691120676</ref><ref>David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0871692139</ref>
|-
|Medicine || MS Valiathan,<br>Kenneth Zysk ||<ref>MS Valiathan, The Legacy of Caraka, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-8125025054</ref><ref>Kenneth Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814011</ref>
|-
|Music || Emmie te Nijenhuis,<br>Lewis Rowell || <ref>Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature ; v. 6 : Scientific and technical literature ; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447018319</ref><ref>Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226730336</ref>
|-
|Mythology || Ludo Rocher || <ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225</ref>
|-
|Philosophy || Karl Potter ||<ref>Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8-120803094</ref>
|-
|Poetics || Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard ||<ref>Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228</ref>
|-
|Gender and Sex || Johann Jakob Meyer ||<ref>JJ Meyer, ''Sexual Life in Ancient India'', Vol 1 and 2, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-1482615883</ref>
|-
|State craft, politics || Patrick Olivelle || <ref>Patrick Olivelle, King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199891825</ref>
|-
|Tantrism, Agamas || Teun Goudriaan ||<ref>Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447020911</ref>
|-
|Temples, Sculpture || Stella Kramrisch ||<ref>Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802223</ref>
|-
|Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads) || Jan Gonda ||<ref>Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447016035</ref>
|}
==See also==
*[[Hindu Epics]]
*[[List of Hindu scriptures]]
*[[List of historic Indian texts]]
*[[List of sutras]]
*[[Sanskrit literature]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
* {{Cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivram |authorlink= |title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1965 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0567-4|ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|last1= Deussen |first1=Paul |last2= Bedekar |first2=V.M. (tr.)|last3= Palsule (tr.)|first3=G.B. |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2| year=1997| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1467-7}}
* {{cite book|year=2000|last=Collins|first=Randall|title=The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0-674-00187-7}}
* {{Citation|title=History of Philosophy Eastern and Western|first=T. M. P|last=Mahadevan|editor=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|year=1956|publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd}}
*{{cite book|first=Arthur Anthony |last= MacDonell|year= 2004|title= A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass|isbn= 978-8120820005|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Patrick| last=Olivelle|year=1992|title= The Samnyasa Upanisads|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0195070453 }}
* {{Citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|title=Upaniṣads|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0192835765}}
* {{Citation|title=A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy|first=R. D.|last=Ranade|year=1926|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}
* {{Citation|title=India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World|volume=Volume 1|first=Alexander P|last=Varghese|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|year=2008|isbn=978-81-269-0903-2|url=https://books.google.com/?id=y7GKwhuea9kC&printsec=frontcover&q}}
==Further reading==
* R.C. Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-0679410782
* Dominic Goodall, Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783
* Jessica Frazier (2014), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1472511515
==External links==
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm Sacred-Texts: Hinduism]
*[http://claysanskritlibrary.org Clay Sanskrit Library] publishes Sanskrit literature with downloadable materials.
*[http://sanskritdocuments.org Sanskrit Documents Collection]: Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.
*[http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm GRETIL: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages], a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.
{{Hindudharma}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Texts}}
[[Category:Hindu texts| ]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
'''Hindu texts''' are manuscripts and historic literature related to any of the diverse traditions within [[Hinduism]]. A few texts are shared resources across these traditions and broadly considered as Hindu scriptures.<ref>Frazier, Jessica (2011), The Continuum companion to Hindu studies, London: Continuum, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 1–15</ref><ref name=goodallix/> These include the [[Veda]]s and the [[Upanishad]]s. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scripture" given the diverse nature of [[Hinduism]],<ref name=goodallix>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page ix-xliii</ref><ref name=klausscrip/> many include [[Bhagavad Gita]] and [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] as Hindu scriptures,<ref name=goodallix/><ref name=klausscrip>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 46-52, 76-77</ref><ref>RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-0679410782, pages 1-11 and Preface</ref> while Dominic Goodall includes [[Bhagavata Purana]] and [[Yajnavalkya Smriti]] to the list of Hindu scriptures.<ref name=goodallix/>
There are two historic classifications of [[Hindu]] texts: ''[[Shruti]]'' – that which is heard,<ref name=jamessruti/> and ''[[Smriti]]'' – that which is remembered.<ref name=jamesmriti/> The ''Śruti'' refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient [[religious text]]s, without any author, comprising the central canon of [[Hinduism]].<ref name=jamessruti>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 9780823931798, page 645</ref> It includes the four [[Vedas]] including its four types of embedded texts - the [[Samhita]]s, the [[Brahmana]]s, the [[Aranyaka]]s and the early [[Upanishads]].<ref name=wendydof>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-1867-6, pages 2-3</ref> Of the ''Shrutis'' (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.<ref name=olivelleexcel/><ref name=wendydonigerupan>Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref>
The ''Smriti'' texts are a specific body of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] texts attributed to an author,<ref name="wendydof"/> as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than ''Sruti'' in Hinduism.<ref name=jamesmriti>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 656-657</ref> The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to [[Vedanga|Vedāngas]], the Hindu epics, the [[Dharmasutras|Sutras and Shastras]], the texts of [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophies]], the [[Puranas]], the Kāvya or poetical literature, the ''Bhasyas'', and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.<ref name=bilimoriasmrti>Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130</ref><ref name="Roy Perrett 1998 pages 16-18">Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824820855, pages 16-18</ref>
Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in [[Sanskrit]], many others in regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] and some in Western languages.<ref name=goodallix/> Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennia before they were written down into manuscripts.<ref name=michaelwitzel68>[[Michael Witzel]], "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5, pages 68-71</ref><ref name=graham67/> This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.<ref name=michaelwitzel68/><ref name=graham67>William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521448208, pages 67-77</ref>
==The Vedas==
{{Main|Vedas}}
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The Vedas are a large body of Hindu texts originating in [[Vedic period|ancient India]], before about 300 BCE. Composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], the texts constitute the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit literature]] and the oldest scriptures of [[Hinduism]].<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}; ''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|p=3}}; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and {{IAST|Upaniṣads}}", in: {{Harvnb|Flood|2003|p=68}}; {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}; ''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>Sanujit Ghose (2011). "[http://www.ancient.eu.com/article/230/ Religious Developments in Ancient India]" in ''Ancient History Encyclopedia''.</ref> Hindus consider the Vedas to be ''[[apauruṣeya]]'', which means "not of a man, superhuman"<ref>Vaman Shivaram Apte, [http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~tjun/sktdic/ ''The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary''], see apauruSeya</ref> and "impersonal, authorless".<ref>D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, ISBN , pages 196-197</ref><ref>Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195384963, page 290</ref><ref>Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, ISBN 978-1409466819, page 128</ref>
Vedas are also called ''{{IAST|[[śruti]]}}'' ("what is heard") literature,<ref>{{Harvnb|Apte|1965|p=887}}</ref> distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called ''{{IAST|[[smṛti]]}}'' ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the [[Deity]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Müller|1891|pp=17–18}}</ref> In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to [[Brahma]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8XO3Im3OMi8C&pg=PA86&dq=brahma+created+vedas&hl=en&sa=X&ei=W_MZUt71GMXJrAecvoCoCg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata] Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pages 85-86</ref>
There are four Vedas: the [[Rigveda]], the [[Yajurveda]], the [[Samaveda]] and the [[Atharvaveda]].<ref name=gflood/><ref>Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977</ref> Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the [[Samhita]]s (mantras and benedictions), the [[Aranyakas]] (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the [[Brahmanas]] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the [[Upanishads]] (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).<ref name=gflood>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 35-39</ref><ref name="A Bhattacharya 2006 pages 8-14">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0595384556, pages 8-14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195332612, page 285</ref><ref name="Jan Gonda 1975">Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447016032</ref>
==The Upanishads==
{{Main|Upanishad}}
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}{{refn|group=note|These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}}}
The Upanishads are commonly referred to as ''[[Vedānta]]'', variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the [[Vedas|Veda]]" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up The Upanishads], Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1</ref> The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishad]]s,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=59}}<ref name=ptraju/> and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36</ref> The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<ref name=wendydonigerupan/><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; '''Quote''': "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";<br />Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210</ref> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.<ref name=olivelleexcel>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; '''Quote''': "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref><ref name=wendydonigerupan/>
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads.<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1</ref><ref>E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299</ref> The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyakas]]''{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=56}} and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down [[oral tradition|verbally]]. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),<ref name=olivelleintro>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 12-14</ref> down to the [[Maurya period]].{{sfn|King|Ācārya|p=52|1995}} Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the [[Muktika]] canon, composed from about the start of common era through [[History of Hinduism|medieval Hinduism]]. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.{{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=12}}{{sfn|Varghese|2008|p=101}}
==Post-Vedic texts==
[[File:Bhagavad Gita, a 19th century manuscript.jpg|thumb|A 19th century manuscript of the Hindu text [[Bhagavad Gita]]]]
The texts that appeared afterwards were called [[smriti]]. Smriti literature includes various Shastras and ''Itihasa''s (epics like [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]]), [[Harivamsa]] [[Puranas]], [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agama]]s and [[Darshana]]s.
The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to later half of the 1st millennium BCE. The [[Dharmashastra|Dharma-shastra]]s (law books), derivatives of the [[Dharmasutras|Dharma-sutras]]. Other examples were ''bhautikashastra'' "physics", ''[[rasayana]]shastra'' "chemistry", ''jīvashastra'' "biology", ''[[Vastu shastra|vastushastra]]'' "architectural science", ''[[Shilpa Shastras|shilpashastra]]'' "science of sculpture", ''arthashastra'' "economics" and ''nītishastra'' "political science".<ref>Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447026765</ref> It also includes Tantra and Agama literature.<ref>Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447020916, pages 7-14</ref>
This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, pages 2-5</ref><ref>Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0779-2</ref>
==The Bhagavad Gita==
{{Main|Bhagavad Gita}}
The Bhagavad Gita is a 700–verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic ''Mahabharata''. This scripture contains a conversation between [[Pandava]] prince [[Arjuna]] and his guide Krishna on a variety of philosophical issues. Commentators see the setting of the Gita in a battlefield as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of the human life. The Bhagavad Gita's call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the [[Indian independence movement]] including [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], who referred to the Gita as his "spiritual dictionary". Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on the essentials, beginning with [[Adi Sankara]]'s commentary on the Gita in the 8th century CE.
==The Puranas==
{{Main|Puranas}}
The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.<ref name=oliverleaman437>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 437-439</ref> Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,<ref name=johncort185>John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791413821, pages 185-204</ref><ref name=gregorybailey>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, page 139</ref> several of these texts are named after major [[Hindu]] deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.<ref name=ludorocher>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21</ref><ref name="Nair 2008 266">{{cite book|last=Nair|first=Shantha N.|title=Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice|year=2008|publisher=Hindology Books|isbn=978-81-223-1020-7|page=266|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekehXVP3W8wC&pg=PA266}}</ref>
There are 18 ''Maha Puranas'' (Great Puranas) and 18 ''Upa Puranas'' (Minor Puranas),<ref name=corneliadimmitt4/> with over 400,000 verses.<ref name=oliverleaman437/> The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,<ref name=corneliadimmitt4>Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, ISBN 978-8120839724, page xii, 4</ref> but are considered a [[Smriti]].<ref>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, page 503</ref> These Hindu texts have been influential in the [[Hindu culture]], inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 12-13, 134-156, 203-210</ref> The [[Bhagavata Purana]] has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.<ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page xli</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Richard L.|title=The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10|year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-1919-1|page=10}}</ref>
== The Tevaram Saivite hymns ==
The [[Tevaram]] is a body of remarkable hymns exuding Bhakti composed more than 1400–1200 years ago in the classical Tamil language by three Saivite composers. They are credited with igniting the Bhakti movement in the whole of India.
==Divya Prabandha Vaishnavite hymns==
The [[Nalayira Divya Prabandham|Nalayira Divya Prabandha]] (or Nalayira (4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD [1], by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are known as the Divya Desams.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}
In South India, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered as equal to the Vedas, hence the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100+ verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaaril Maaran Sadagopan) of Thiruk Kurugoor.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}
==Other Hindu texts==
Ancient and medieval era Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows,
{| class="wikitable sortable"|-
! Field !! Reviewer !! Reference
|-
|Agriculture and food || Gyula Wojtilla || <ref>Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447053068</ref>
|-
|Architecture || P Acharya,<br>B Dagens ||<ref>PK Acharya (1946), [https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture], Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6</ref><ref>Bruno Dagens (1995), MAYAMATA : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography, ISBN 978-8120835252</ref>
|-
|Devotionalism || Karen Pechelis ||<ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903</ref>
|-
|Drama, dance and performance arts || AB Keith,<br>Rachel Baumer and James Brandon,<br>Mohan Khokar || <ref>[https://archive.org/details/SanskritDrama-KeithA.Berriedale The Sanskrit Drama], Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Rachel Baumer and James Brandon (1993), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8-120807723</ref><ref>Mohan Khokar (1981), Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, Peter Owen Publishers, ISBN 978-0720605747</ref>
|-
|Education, school system || Hartmut Scharfe ||<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004125568</ref>
|-
|Epics || John Brockington || <ref>John Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004102606</ref>
|-
|Gnomic and didactic literature || Ludwik Sternbach ||<ref>Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 9783447015462</ref>
|-
|Grammar || Hartmut Scharfe || <ref>Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228</ref>
|-
|Law and jurisprudence || J Duncan M Derrett ||<ref>J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447015195</ref>
|-
|Lexicography || Claus Vogel || <ref>Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228</ref>
|-
|Mathematics and exact sciences || Kim Plofker<br>David Pingree ||<ref>Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691120676</ref><ref>David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0871692139</ref>
|-
|Medicine || MS Valiathan,<br>Kenneth Zysk ||<ref>MS Valiathan, The Legacy of Caraka, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-8125025054</ref><ref>Kenneth Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814011</ref>
|-
|Music || Emmie te Nijenhuis,<br>Lewis Rowell || <ref>Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature ; v. 6 : Scientific and technical literature ; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447018319</ref><ref>Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226730336</ref>
|-
|Mythology || Ludo Rocher || <ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225</ref>
|-
|Philosophy || Karl Potter ||<ref>Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8-120803094</ref>
|-
|Poetics || Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard ||<ref>Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447017228</ref>
|-
|Gender and Sex || Johann Jakob Meyer ||<ref>JJ Meyer, ''Sexual Life in Ancient India'', Vol 1 and 2, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-1482615883</ref>
|-
|State craft, politics || Patrick Olivelle || <ref>Patrick Olivelle, King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199891825</ref>
|-
|Tantrism, Agamas || Teun Goudriaan ||<ref>Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447020911</ref>
|-
|Temples, Sculpture || Stella Kramrisch ||<ref>Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802223</ref>
|-
|Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads) || Jan Gonda ||<ref>Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447016035</ref>
|}
==See also==
*[[Hindu Epics]]
*[[List of Hindu scriptures]]
*[[List of historic Indian texts]]
*[[List of sutras]]
*[[Sanskrit literature]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
* {{Cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivram |authorlink= |title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1965 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0567-4|ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|last1= Deussen |first1=Paul |last2= Bedekar |first2=V.M. (tr.)|last3= Palsule (tr.)|first3=G.B. |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2| year=1997| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1467-7}}
* {{cite book|year=2000|last=Collins|first=Randall|title=The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0-674-00187-7}}
* {{Citation|title=History of Philosophy Eastern and Western|first=T. M. P|last=Mahadevan|editor=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|year=1956|publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd}}
*{{cite book|first=Arthur Anthony |last= MacDonell|year= 2004|title= A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass|isbn= 978-8120820005|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Patrick| last=Olivelle|year=1992|title= The Samnyasa Upanisads|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0195070453 }}
* {{Citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|title=Upaniṣads|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0192835765}}
* {{Citation|title=A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy|first=R. D.|last=Ranade|year=1926|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}
* {{Citation|title=India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World|volume=Volume 1|first=Alexander P|last=Varghese|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|year=2008|isbn=978-81-269-0903-2|url=https://books.google.com/?id=y7GKwhuea9kC&printsec=frontcover&q}}
==Further reading==
* R.C. Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-0679410782
* Dominic Goodall, Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783
* Jessica Frazier (2014), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1472511515
==External links==
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm Sacred-Texts: Hinduism]
*[http://claysanskritlibrary.org Clay Sanskrit Library] publishes Sanskrit literature with downloadable materials.
*[http://sanskritdocuments.org Sanskrit Documents Collection]: Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.
*[http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm GRETIL: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages], a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.
{{Hindudharma}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Texts}}
[[Category:Hindu texts| ]]