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'''Vedanta''' ({{IPAc-en|v|ae|d|ɑː|n|t|ə}}; {{IPA-hi|ʋeːd̪aːn̪t̪}}, ''{{IAST|Vedānta}}'') or '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''' is one of the six orthodox schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]. The term veda means "knowledge" and anta means "end," and originally referred to the classical [[Upanishads]], a collection of foundational texts in [[Hinduism]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0143099864, page 159, '''Quote:''' The Vedic or Classical Upanishads are sometimes called Vedanta or "end (anta) of the Veda". The term occurs first after the end of the Vedic period, in the Mundaka Upanishad (4th to 3rd centuries BCE?); (...)".</ref>{{refn|group=note|Considered to be the final layer of the Vedic canon}} Vedanta also refers to various philosophical traditions based on [[Prasthanatrayi|the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy]], namely the [[Principal Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30</ref><ref>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex University Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxiii-xxiv</ref>

'''Vedanta''' ([[IAST]], ''{{IAST|Vedānta}}'', Sanskrit: वेदांत) or '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''' is one of the six orthodox schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].  Primarily the word [[Vedanta]] stood for [[Upanishads]]; afterwords, its denotation widened to include all thoughts developed out of the [[Upanishads]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN PHILOSOPHY|last=Satischandra Chatterjee|first=Dhirendramohan Dutta|publisher=RUPA PUBLICATIONS INDIA PVT. LIMITED|year=2007|isbn=978-81-291-1195-1|location=|pages=317|via=}}</ref>. Vedanta, its denotation as understood and accepted by its major schools, refers to various philosophical traditions based on [[Prasthanatrayi|the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy]], namely the [[Principal Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30</ref><ref>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex University Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxiii-xxiv</ref>

Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya]],<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 20-21</ref><ref>Francis X Clooney (2000), Ultimate Realities: A Volume in the Comparative Religious Ideas Project, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791447758, pages 96-107</ref> and, over time, became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse traditions within it.<ref name=hajimenakamura3/><ref name=gavinfloodaith238/> The term Vedanta may also be used to refer to Indian philosophy more generally.{{cn|date=December 2015}} There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} of which [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Achintya-Bheda-Abheda]] and [[Dvaita]] are the best known.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}

Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya]],<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 20-21</ref><ref>Francis X Clooney (2000), Ultimate Realities: A Volume in the Comparative Religious Ideas Project, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791447758, pages 96-107</ref> and, over time, became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse traditions within it.<ref name=hajimenakamura3/><ref name=gavinfloodaith238/> There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} of which [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Dvaita]] and [[Bhedabheda]] are the best known.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}{{TOC limit|limit=2}}

{{TOC limit|limit=2}}

==Etymology==

==Etymology and Nomenclature==

The name is a morphophonological form of ''Veda-anta'' = "Veda-end" = "the [[Addendum|appendix]] to the Vedic hymns". It is also said that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".{{refn|group=note|Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the [[Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York|Union Theological Seminary]], wrote in [[Random House]]'s ''The American College Dictionary'' (1966): "It [Vedānta] is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically."}} Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original Vedas.

[[Vedanta]] literally means the ''end of the [[Vedas]]''<ref name=":0" />''.'' All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|last=Hiriyanna|first=M.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2008|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|location=Delhi|pages=19|via=}}</ref>. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:

# The Upanishads were the last literary products of the Vedic period. The literature of this period is broadly classified into three kinds - the ''[[Samhita|Samhitas]],'' the ''[[Brahmana|Brahmanas]]'' and the ''[[Upanishads]].'' The three collectively form the [[Vedas]]. The ''[[Upanishads]]''  discuss the philosophical problems and form the last layer or the end of the ''[[Vedas]]''.

# In respect of study, the ''[[Upanishads]]'' were studied the last, during [[Vanaprastha|Vanprastha]] and [[Sannyasa]].

# The ''[[Upanishads]]'' mark the culmination of [[Vedas|Vedic]] thought. <ref>{{Cite book|title=AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN PHILOSOPHY|last=Satischandra Chatterjee|first=Dhirendramohan Dutta|publisher=Rupa Publications India Pvt. Limited|year=2007|isbn=978-81-291-1195-1|location=|pages=317, 318|via=}}</ref>

Vedanta is also called '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa and also Karma Mimamsa, usually simply called [[Mimamsa]], deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic [[mantra]]s (in the [[Samhita]] portion of the Vedas) and [[Brahmana]]s, while Vedanta deals with the [[Upanishads]] or the ''Jnana-kanda'' of the [[Vedas]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=A Critical Summary of Indian Philosphy|last=Sharma|first=Chandradhar|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2009|isbn=978-81-208-0365-7|location=Delhi|pages=211|via=}}</ref>

In earlier writings, [[Sanskrit]] 'Vedānta' simply referred to the [[Upanishad]]s, the most important and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads.

The Vedanta school has been historically referred to by various names, the early names being the Upanishadic ones (''Aupanisada''), the doctrine of the end of the Vedas (''Vedanta-vada''), the doctrine of [[Brahman]] (''Brahma-vada''), and the doctrine that Brahman is the cause (''Brahma-karana-vada'').{{Sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}}

Vedānta is also called '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called [[Mimamsa]], deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic [[mantra]]s (in the [[Samhita]] portion of the Vedas) and [[Brahmana]]s, while Vedanta explicates the ''Jnana-kanda'' or knowledge part of the [[Aranyaka|{{IAST|Āraṇyakas}}]] (the "forest scriptures"), and the [[Upanishads]], composed after about 9th century BCE through the common era.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=100-106}}

==''[[Prasthanatrayi|Prasthantrayi]]'', the Three Basic Texts==

In the current view, the [[Upanishads]], The [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavadgita]] and the [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]] constitute the triple basis of Vedanta. All schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, called the [[Prasthanatrayi]], literally, ''three sources''<ref>Vepa, Kosla. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Dls3ROqB4iUC&pg=PA112&dq=Prasthanatrayi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dIPET8agJtHhrAeu-4zfCQ&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Prasthanatrayi&f=false The Dhaarmik Traditions]. Indic Studies Foundation.</ref>.

#The [[Upanishads|''Upanishads'']], known as ''Upadesha prasthana'' (injunctive texts), and the ''Śruti prasthāna'' (the starting point of revelation)

#The ''[[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta]]'' [[Brahma Sutras|Sutra]] or [[Brahma Sutras]], known as ''Nyaya prasthana'' or ''Yukti prasthana'' (logical text)

#The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', a part of the [[Mahabharata]], is known as ''Sadhana prasthana'' (practical text), and the ''Smriti prasthāna'' (the starting point of remembered tradition)

The Upanishads were many in number and developed in the different Vedic schools at different times and places (the names of up to 112 [[Upanishads]] have been recorded)<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1|last=Dasgupta|first=Surendranath|publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2015|isbn=978-81-208-0412-8|location=|pages=28|via=}}</ref>. All major commentators have considered twelve to thirteen of these texts as the principle [[Upanishad]]s.

The Vedanta school has been historically referred to by various names, states Richard King, with early names of the Vedanta school being Upanishadic ones (''Aupanisada''), the doctrine of the end of the Vedas (''Vedanta-vada''), the doctrine of [[Brahman]] (''Brahma-vada''), and named after the doctrine that Brahman is the cause (''Brahma-karana-vada'').{{Sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}}

The problems discussed and solutions offered in the [[Upanishads]] presented differences despite a unity of general outlook. The indefiniteness of the teaching of the [[Upanishads]] led to a necessity for its systematization. The systematization, in all likelihood, was effected in more than one way; but the only attempt that has survived is represented by the Sutras of ''[[Badarayana]] [[Vyasa]]'' popularly known as ''[[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]]'' or ''[[Brahma Sutras|Brahma Sutra]]''<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|last=Hiriyanna|first=M.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2008|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|location=Delhi|pages=151, 152|via=}}</ref>.

All major Vedantic teachers, like [[Adi Shankara|Shankaracharya]], [[Rāmānuja|Ramanujacharya]], and [[Madhvacharya]], have composed extensive commentaries not only on the [[Upanishads]] and [[Brahma Sutras]], but also on the [[Bhagavad Gita]]. While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and [[Upanishad]]ic thought, the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' has played a strong role in Vedantic thought.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pasricha|first=Ashu|title=Encyclopaedia of Eminent Thinkers: The Political Thought of C. Rajagopalachari, Volume 15|year=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788180694950|pages=95}}</ref>

All sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting the [[Prasthanatrayi]], literally, ''three sources'', the three canonical texts of [[Hindu philosophy]], especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:<ref>Vepa, Kosla. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Dls3ROqB4iUC&pg=PA112&dq=Prasthanatrayi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dIPET8agJtHhrAeu-4zfCQ&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Prasthanatrayi&f=false The Dhaarmik Traditions]. Indic Studies Foundation.</ref>

#The [[Upanishads]], known as ''Upadesha prasthana'' (injunctive texts), and the ''Śruti prasthāna'' (the starting point of revelation)

#The [[Brahma Sutras]], known as ''Nyaya prasthana'' or ''Yukti prasthana'' (logical text)

#The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', known as ''Sadhana prasthana'' (practical text), and the ''Smriti prasthāna'' (the starting point of remembered tradition)

The [[Upanishad]]s consist of twelve or thirteen [[mukhya|major]] texts, with a total of 108 texts. The ''{{IAST|[[Bhagavad Gītā]]}}'' is part of the {{IAST|[[Mahabhārata]]}}. The {{IAST|[[Brahma Sutra|Brahma Sūtra]]s}} (also known as the ''{{IAST|Vedānta Sūtras}}''), systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the ''{{IAST|Gītā}}''.

All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, [[Rāmānuja]], and Mādhvāchārya, have composed often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the ''Gita''. While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and [[Upanishad]]ic thought, the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' has played a strong role in Vedantic thought.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pasricha|first=Ashu|title=Encyclopaedia of Eminent Thinkers: The Political Thought of C. Rajagopalachari, Volume 15|year=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788180694950|pages=95}}</ref>

 

The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments."{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx–xxxi}} The schools trace their antiquity far back into the [[Vedas]] and the early seers. [[Advaita Vedanta]] and [[Vishishtadvaita|Vishishtadvaita Vedanta]] existed prior to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] and [[Ramanuja]] respectively but found their most influential expounder in them.<ref>The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidhā anupapatti. By John A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass 1990</ref>  

Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the [[Brahma Sutras]] (400–450 BC{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}) almost nothing is known.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Very little also is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara (first half of the 8th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada]] (7th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}

Advaita Vedanta existed prior to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], but found its most influential expounder in him.<ref>The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidhā anupapatti. By John A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass 1990</ref> Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the [[Brahma Sutras]] (400–450 BC{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}) almost nothing is known.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Very little also is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara (first half of the 8th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada]] (7th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}

===Earliest Vedanta===

=== Vedanta before the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' ===

According to Balasubramanian, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas, since the basic ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}} During the Vedic period (1500–600 BC{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}}) the [[Rishi]]s formulated their religio-philosophical and poetical visions, which are further explored in the [[Upanishads]],{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix–xxx}} the ''jnāna-kānda'' of the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}} The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments."{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx–xxxi}}

Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give some insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}  

Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context, texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."{{sfn|deutsch|2004|p=95}} The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedanta gives an interpretation.{{sfn|Deutsch|2004|p=95-96}}

[[Badarayana]] was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him:{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}{{quote|From the way in which Bādarāyana cites the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four chapters must have been the last attempt, most probably the best.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}}}

===Bhedabheda and Bādarāyana's Brahma Sutras===

=== [[Badarayana]] [[Vyasa]]'s [[Brahma Sutras|''Brahma Sutras'']] ===

{{Main|Brahma Sutras}}

{{Main|Brahma Sutras}}

The Brahma Sutras of Bādarāyana, also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}}{{refn|group=note|The Vedānta-sūtra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-sūtra, (2) Śārīraka, (3) Vyāsa-sūtra, (4) Bādarāyaṇa-sūtra, (5) Uttara-mīmāṁsā and (6) Vedānta-darśana.<ref name = SDG>{{Citation | first = S.D. | last = Goswāmi | author-link = Satsvarupa dāsa Goswāmi | title =Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself |  publisher = [https://books.google.com/books?id=ockZAAAAMAAJ] | year = 1976 | pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9 }}</ref>}} are traditionally ascribed to Bādarāyana,{{refn|group=note|Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE}} and 200 CE.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}} but "are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} They were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that."{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}

In the [[Brahma Sutras]], also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}}{{refn|group=note|The Vedānta-sūtra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-sūtra, (2) Śārīraka, (3) Vyāsa-sūtra, (4) Bādarāyaṇa-sūtra, (5) Uttara-mīmāṁsā and (6) Vedānta-darśana.<ref name = SDG>{{Citation | first = S.D. | last = Goswāmi | author-link = Satsvarupa dāsa Goswāmi | title =Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself |  publisher = [https://books.google.com/books?id=ockZAAAAMAAJ] | year = 1976 | pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9 }}</ref>}}[[Badarayana|Badarayan]] [[Vyasa]] summarized the teachings of the [[upanishads]] <ref>{{Cite book|title=A Critical Summary of Indian Philosophy|last=Sharma|first=Chandramohan|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2009|isbn=978-81-208-0365-7|location=Delhi|pages=239, 240, 241|via=}}</ref>. The identity of [[Badarayana]] is not well established. Traditions often ascribe the authorship of the Brahma Sutras to [[Vyasa]], who has variously been called [[Badarayana]].  

The earliest stratum of sutras in the ''Brahmasutras'' is concerned with interpretation of the Upanishads, especially the differences between the ''Chandogya Upanishad'', the ''Brhadanyaka Upanisgad'', and the ''Taittiriya Upanishad''.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} Later additions were concerned with the refutation of rival philosophical schools, especially Samkhya.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}

The Brahma Sutras have traditionally been ascribed to Badarayana,{{refn|group=note|Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE}} and antiquity quoted as 200 CE{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}}. However, some scholars understand it as a group of [[Sutra|sutras]] composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} that were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that."{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}

Bādarāyana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him:{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}

The [[Brahma Sutras]] has been written in four chapters, each divided into four quarters or sections.<ref name=":2" /> The cryptic aphorisms of the [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutras]] are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own commentary.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26-27}} As a consequence, the divergence of views, originally prevalent in the form of seemingly diverse verses of the [[Upanishads]], re-asserted themselves and have continued in more or less the same form even after the composition of the [[sutra]].<ref name=":2" />

{{quote|From the way in which Bādarāyana cites the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four chapters must have been the last attempt, most probably the best.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}}}

{{See also|Vedas|Upanishads|Darsanas}}

The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26-27}}

The vagueness of the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching is particularly in reference to the relation of [[Brahman]] to the individual soul ([[Jivatva|Jiva]]) on the one hand, and to the physical universe on the other. Statements about their identity in the principal [[Upanishads]] are many and prominent and those distinguishing the two expressly are not altogether wanting. The first problem to solve for any one attempting to systematize the teaching of the Upanishads is accordingly to harmonize these two sets of statements. The most obvious way of doing so is to attach equal value to both classes of statements and theorize that the soul and the world are both identical with and different from [[Brahman]]. That was the view held by '''Bhartriprapancha''', who flourished before [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], and commented on the [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]] and the [[Upanishads]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|last=Hiriyanna|first=M.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2008|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|location=Delhi|pages=152, 23|via=}}</ref>

===Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara===

'''Bhartriprapancha''' maintained that the self and the physical universe, though finite and imperfect, are real and the two are not altogether different from the Brahman. Bhartriprapancha was criticised by [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] in his treatises. Scholars see Bhartriprapancha as one of the earlier philosophers in the line of philosophers who teach the tenet of [[Bhedabheda]]..<ref name=":3" />

According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period, but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group=web>[http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'']</ref> Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}

The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa-dāsa.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Combined together,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} at least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}}}

 

In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group="web">[http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'']</ref> The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa-dāsa.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Combined together,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} at least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}}}

===Gaudapada and Shankara===

===Gaudapada and Shankara===

===Bhedabheda===

===Bhedabheda===

[[Bhedabheda]] (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda"/> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

[[Bhedabheda]] (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda"/> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

===Dvaitādvaita===

===Dvaitādvaita===

===Shuddhādvaita===

===Shuddhādvaita===

[[File:Shri mahaprabhuji.jpg|thumb|right|text|Vallabhacharya]]

[[File:Shri mahaprabhuji.jpg|thumb|right|text|Vallabhacharya]]

[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple “Proof Corpus” (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of “[[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad” (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)”, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>“Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>   

[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple “Proof Corpus (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of “[[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2), Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>“Brahmavād Saṅgraha, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>   

===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===

===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===

===Advaita Vedānta===

===Advaita Vedānta===

[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|x216px|Shankaracharya]]

[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|x216px|Shankaracharya]]

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref> In the school of Vedānta, Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusory power of Brahman called [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] causes the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Māyā, Brahman appears as God ([[Ishvara]]), separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul ''jīvātman'' (see [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this [[non-difference]] (i.e. a-dvaita, "non-duality"). Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge (''jñāna'').<ref name="Vedanta">[http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Vedanta Vedanta] on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia</ref>

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

===Vishishtadvaita===

===Vishishtadvaita===