Changes

* The Upanishads tell us that the Vedas - the storehouse of knowledge - have been breathed forth from Him (Brhd. Upan. 2.4.10); but they regard the Karma-kanda as secondary, being only a help to purify the mind by which purification one is made fit to receive the real teaching about Brahman.   

* The Upanishads tell us that the Vedas - the storehouse of knowledge - have been breathed forth from Him (Brhd. Upan. 2.4.10); but they regard the Karma-kanda as secondary, being only a help to purify the mind by which purification one is made fit to receive the real teaching about Brahman.   

* We find in Chandogya Upanishad (7.2) the [[Narada Sanatkumara Samvada (नारदसनत्कुमारयोः संवादः)|Narada Sanatkumara Samvada]] that even though one is well-versed in the knowledge of the Vedas, Mantras and the [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Chaturdasha Vidyas]], he or she could still be ignorant about the Self. Only one who knows the Self goes beyond sorrow.   

* We find in Chandogya Upanishad (7.2) the [[Narada Sanatkumara Samvada (नारदसनत्कुमारयोः संवादः)|Narada Sanatkumara Samvada]] that even though one is well-versed in the knowledge of the Vedas, Mantras and the [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Chaturdasha Vidyas]], he or she could still be ignorant about the Self. Only one who knows the Self goes beyond sorrow.   

* The Mundakopanishad (1.1.4 and 5) tells us: "Two kinds of knowledge must be known, the higher and the lower. The lower knowledge is that which the Rk, Sama, Atharva, ceremonial, grammar give .... but the higher knowledge is that by which the immortal Brahman is known.     

* The Mundakopanishad (1.1.4 and 5) tells us: "Two kinds of knowledge must be known, the higher (Para) and the lower (Apara). The lower knowledge is that which the Rk, Sama, Atharva, ceremonial, grammar give .... but the higher knowledge is that by which the immortal Brahman is known.     

* In the Bhagavadgita (2.45 and 46)also Srikrishna asks Arjuna to rise above the three gunas. <ref name=":22" />   

* In the Bhagavadgita (2.45 and 46) also Srikrishna asks Arjuna to rise above the three gunas. <ref name=":22" />   

Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified the Self shines in its true light and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. Self at this stage ultimately dissociates from ''Chitta'', which is the root of all emotions, ideas and actions. Thus, emancipated the self forever conquers all sorrow.<ref name=":12" />

Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified the Self shines in its true light and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. Self at this stage ultimately dissociates from ''Chitta'', which is the root of all emotions, ideas and actions. Thus, emancipated the self forever conquers all sorrow.<ref name=":12" />

=== Nyaya and Vaiseshika ===

=== Nyaya and Vaiseshika ===

The Vaiseshika darshana is regarded as conducive to the study of all systems. It deals with the Padarthas (पदार्थः । categories) and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. The word 'padartha' means 'the meaning of a word' or 'the object signified by a word'. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought (ज्ञेयम् । jneya) and named (अभिधेयः । abhidheya). The Vaiseshika system is a pluralistic realism,  a philosophy of identity and difference, which emphasizes that the heart of reality consists on difference.  It is a mere catalogue of the knowables, an enumeration of the diverse reals without any attempt to synthesize them. Originally the Vaiseshika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of Abhava or negation was added on later.  The Vaiseshika divides all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes - bhava or being and abhava or non-being. All knowledge necessarily points to an object beyond and independent of it. Nyaya accepts the metaphysics of the Vaiseshika school and the accounts of matter, soul and God are almost the same as those in the Vaiseshika.<ref name=":22" />

The Vaiseshika darshana is regarded as conducive to the study of all systems. It deals with the [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] (पदार्थः । categories) and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. The word 'padartha' means 'the meaning of a word' or 'the object signified by a word'. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought (ज्ञेयम् । jneya) and named (अभिधेयः । abhidheya). The Vaiseshika system is a pluralistic realism,  a philosophy of identity and difference, which emphasizes that the heart of reality consists on difference.  It is a mere catalogue of the knowables, an enumeration of the diverse reals without any attempt to synthesize them. Originally the Vaiseshika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of Abhava or negation was added on later.  The Vaiseshika divides all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes - bhava or being and abhava or non-being. All knowledge necessarily points to an object beyond and independent of it. Nyaya accepts the metaphysics of the Vaiseshika school and the accounts of matter, soul and God are almost the same as those in the Vaiseshika.<ref name=":22" />

As an astika system Nyaya holds that the highest goal is called [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|nihsreyasa]] or liberation.<ref name=":1">Adhikary, Jaya. (2003) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/137458/4/04_chapter_01.pdf The Nyaya Concepts of Prama Pramana and Pramanya :  A critical study.]'' University of North Bengal</ref> Nyaya-Vaiseshika believes in the doctrine of ''Asatkaryavada'' (असत्कार्यवादः ) which means that the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect is a new beginning, a fresh creation. It is also called Arambhavada (आरम्भवादः) or Paramanukaranavada (परमाणुकरणवादः). Among the Nastika darshanas Hinayana Buddhism, Charvakas, and a group of Mimamsa believes in Asatkaryavada.<ref name=":22" />

As an astika system Nyaya holds that the highest goal is called [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|nihsreyasa]] or liberation.<ref name=":1">Adhikary, Jaya. (2003) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/137458/4/04_chapter_01.pdf The Nyaya Concepts of Prama Pramana and Pramanya :  A critical study.]'' University of North Bengal</ref> Nyaya-Vaiseshika believes in the doctrine of ''Asatkaryavada'' (असत्कार्यवादः ) which means that the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect is a new beginning, a fresh creation. It is also called Arambhavada (आरम्भवादः) or Paramanukaranavada (परमाणुकरणवादः). Among the Nastika darshanas Hinayana Buddhism, Charvakas, and a group of Mimamsa believes in Asatkaryavada.<ref name=":22" />

|Develops logic and epistemology (the theory of knowledge)

|Develops logic and epistemology (the theory of knowledge)

|-

|-

|Recognizes only two Pramanas : pratyaksha (perception) and anumana (inference)

|Recognizes only three [[Pramana (प्रमाणम्)|Pramanas]] : pratyaksha (perception) and anumana (inference) and shabda (verbal testimony)

|Recognizes four Pramanas : perception, inference, Upamana (comparison) and shabda (verbal authority).

|Recognizes four [[Pramana (प्रमाणम्)|Pramanas]] : perception, inference, Upamana (comparison) and shabda (verbal authority).

|}

|}

This system of thought is one of the oldest, but its origin has been a matter with various versions among the scholarly groups. Whatever be its origin, it is considered important next to Vedanta.   

This system of thought is one of the oldest, but its origin has been a matter with various versions among the scholarly groups. Whatever be its origin, it is considered important next to Vedanta.   

Samkhya regards both matter and spirit as ultimately real and admits a plurality of Purushas (Self). It traces the whole of the physical universe, with all its variety to a single source called Prkrti. The three gunas or 'cosmic constituents' - Sattva, Rajas and Tamas are in a state of perfect equilibrium Prkrti, until it begins to differentiate itself and the diversity of the things that spring forth (with different proportions of gunas) make up the process of evolution. Evolution here means change of form (parinama). The evolutionary process is periodical and every period of evolution (sristhi) is followed by a period of dissolution (pralaya) when the whole diversity of the universe becomes latent or goes to 'sleep' as it were, in Prkrti.   

Samkhya regards both matter and spirit as ultimately real and admits a [[Bahupurushavada (बहुपुरुषवादः)|Plurality of Purushas]] (Self). It traces the whole of the physical universe, with all its variety to a single source called Prkrti. The three gunas or 'cosmic constituents' - Sattva, Rajas and Tamas are in a state of perfect equilibrium Prkrti, until it begins to differentiate itself and the diversity of the things that spring forth (with different proportions of gunas) make up the process of evolution. [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|Evolution]] here means change of form (parinama). The evolutionary process is periodical and every period of evolution (sristhi) is followed by a period of dissolution (pralaya) when the whole diversity of the universe becomes latent or goes to 'sleep' as it were, in Prkrti.   

[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya (साङ्ख्यम्)]] propounds the origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.   

[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya (साङ्ख्यम्)]] propounds the origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.   

Of the seven padarthas formulated in the Nyaya-Vaiseshika theories, the Mimamsa accepts five of them. This philosophy holds that existents like substance and attribute or the particular and the universal are not totally distinct, but distinct while being the same. The relation between them are termed ''Bhedabheda''. Kumarila Bhatta's siddhanta is given briefly here for a general understanding of the Mimamsa school of thought.<ref name=":32" />

Of the seven padarthas formulated in the Nyaya-Vaiseshika theories, the Mimamsa accepts five of them. This philosophy holds that existents like substance and attribute or the particular and the universal are not totally distinct, but distinct while being the same. The relation between them are termed ''Bhedabheda''. Kumarila Bhatta's siddhanta is given briefly here for a general understanding of the Mimamsa school of thought.<ref name=":32" />

'''Kumarila Bhatta Siddhanta :''' The ultimate particles he postulates of the four elements - earth, water, fire, and air - are not indivisible and possess finite magnitude so that they are not strictly atomic at all. Whole and parts are not accordingly absolutely distinct, but distinct while being same. Like the Nyaya-Vaiseshika, this system also postulates 24 qualities but with a few modifications. Mimamsa system accepts six pramanas including perception, inference and verbal testimony apart from the three accepted by Kumarila namely - Comparison (Upamana) Presumption (arthapatti) and Non-apprehension (anupalabdhi). Kumarila primarily advocates that all things are positive from their own standpoint but negative from that of others (Sadasadatmaka).  

'''Kumarila Bhatta Siddhanta :''' The ultimate particles he postulates of the four elements - earth, water, fire, and air - are not indivisible and possess finite magnitude so that they are not strictly atomic at all. Whole and parts are not accordingly absolutely distinct, but distinct while being same. Like the Nyaya-Vaiseshika, this system also postulates 24 qualities but with a few modifications. Mimamsa system accepts [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|six pramanas]] including perception, inference and verbal testimony apart from the three accepted by Kumarila namely - Comparison (Upamana) Presumption (arthapatti) and Non-apprehension (anupalabdhi). Kumarila primarily advocates that all things are positive from their own standpoint but negative from that of others (Sadasadatmaka).  

According to him, who recognizes no God, the Veda is valid, because knowledge and validity is inherent in it. The central features of the Mimamsa view of the Vedas are taken to teach only truth because  

According to him, who recognizes no God, the Veda is valid, because knowledge and validity is inherent in it. The central features of the Mimamsa view of the Vedas are taken to teach only truth because  

* All the six pramanas are accepted in this philososphy.   

* All the six pramanas are accepted in this philososphy.   

* Brahman is the sole reality and it appears both as the world and as the individual self (jiva). The former is an illusory manifestation of Brahman, while the later is Brahman itself appearing under the limitations which form part of that illusory universe.  

* Brahman is the sole reality and it appears both as the world and as the individual self (jiva). The former is an illusory manifestation of Brahman, while the later is Brahman itself appearing under the limitations which form part of that illusory universe.  

* Creation is effected by transformation and not by evolution, thus agreeing with the philosophy of Samkhya to a certain extent. Brahman is the material cause and source of all. The theory of causation is called Vivartavada, where the variety seen is only an appearance or change of the ultimate source, the Brahman, as the illusory serpent is of the rope.   

* Creation is effected by transformation and not by [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|evolution]], thus agreeing with the philosophy of Samkhya to a certain extent. Brahman is the material cause and source of all. The theory of causation is called Vivartavada, where the variety seen is only an appearance or change of the ultimate source, the Brahman, as the illusory serpent is of the rope.   

* The means to liberation is neither adherence to moral and religious duty (to cultivate detachment or vairagya) alone nor acquisition of right knowledge alone (jnana) but a combination of both. Thus Vedanta integrates jnana and karma (jnana-karma-samucchaya) for achieving self-perfection and moksha.   

* The means to liberation is neither adherence to moral and religious duty (to cultivate detachment or vairagya) alone nor acquisition of right knowledge alone (jnana) but a combination of both. Thus Vedanta integrates jnana and karma (jnana-karma-samucchaya) for achieving self-perfection and moksha.   

* When the truth is realized, one attains moksha which is not merely knowing Brahman, but being Brahman. The person who has reached this stage is a jivamukta or a free man, although he may continue to be associated with his several physical accompaniments. When a jivanmukta casts off his physical body at death, he becomes freed in the final sense of the term (videha mukti).   

* When the truth is realized, one attains moksha which is not merely knowing Brahman, but being Brahman. The person who has reached this stage is a jivamukta or a free man, although he may continue to be associated with his several physical accompaniments. When a jivanmukta casts off his physical body at death, he becomes freed in the final sense of the term (videha mukti).   

* Ramanuja acknowledges only two categories - substance (dravya) and non-substance (adravya) or attribute. By substance is meant "what undergoes change" or "what has modes (avasthas)" and it is of six kinds, three of which are Prkrti, Jiva and God.  

* Ramanuja acknowledges only two categories - substance (dravya) and non-substance (adravya) or attribute. By substance is meant "what undergoes change" or "what has modes (avasthas)" and it is of six kinds, three of which are Prkrti, Jiva and God.  

* Prkrti is similar to that conceived in Samkhya, the differences being that according to Ramanuja it is not regarded as independent of spirit and that sattva, rajas and tamas are taken to be its attributes and not its constituents.   

* Prkrti is similar to that conceived in Samkhya, the differences being that according to Ramanuja it is not regarded as independent of spirit and that sattva, rajas and tamas are taken to be its attributes and not its constituents.   

* The physical world, in its infinite variety, evolves out of Prkrti under the guidance of God. This theory of causation is termed Satkaryavada, it is the sat itself, or already existing, that is conceived as effect by transformation taking place in the modes (avasthas). The nature of the evolutes and their order of emergence from Prkrti are similar to those of Samkhya.  

* The physical world, in its infinite variety, evolves out of Prkrti under the guidance of God. This [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|theory of causation]] is termed Satkaryavada, it is the sat itself, or already existing, that is conceived as effect by transformation taking place in the modes (avasthas). The nature of the evolutes and their order of emergence from Prkrti are similar to those of Samkhya.  

* The Jiva is different from God, but not independent of him. It is described as a prakara of God, an accessory to him. The Jivas are of three kinds -  

* The Jiva is different from God, but not independent of him. It is described as a prakara of God, an accessory to him. The Jivas are of three kinds -  

** those that are never in bondage (Garuda) and have always been free  

** those that are never in bondage (Garuda) and have always been free  

* The senses which are instrumental in knowing are reckoned as seven, including manas and sakshin. The conception of Sakshin as an organ of sense (indriya) is a distinctive feature of Dvaita.  

* The senses which are instrumental in knowing are reckoned as seven, including manas and sakshin. The conception of Sakshin as an organ of sense (indriya) is a distinctive feature of Dvaita.  

* Dvaita is realistic in absolute sense. Existence in space and time is the general criterion of reality.   

* Dvaita is realistic in absolute sense. Existence in space and time is the general criterion of reality.   

* God transcends sattva, rajas, and taas which are not qualities of Prkrti (as in Vishishtadvaita) here but are its first products. Attributes of God include infinite power and mercy in addition to being the essence of knowledge and joy. He is apprehensible but not comprehensible.  

* God transcends sattva, rajas, and tamas which are not qualities of Prkrti (as in Vishishtadvaita) here but are its first products. Attributes of God include infinite power and mercy in addition to being the essence of knowledge and joy. He is apprehensible but not comprehensible.  

* God is not only the creator and destroyer of the whole universe, he also entirely controls each and every one of its aspects.  

* God is not only the creator and destroyer of the whole universe, he also entirely controls each and every one of its aspects.  

* Like Vishishtadvaita, here also three pramanas are admitted - perception, inference and verbal testimony.  

* Like Vishishtadvaita, here also three [[Pramana (प्रमाणम्)|pramanas]] are admitted - perception, inference and verbal testimony.  

* The knowledge of God is essential to release, but the final liberation is achieved through his grace, by the means of unbroken love of God or devotion (bhakti).   

* The knowledge of God is essential to release, but the final liberation is achieved through his grace, by the means of unbroken love of God or devotion (bhakti).   

== Unity in Indian Sadhana ==

== Unity in Indian Sadhana ==