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Line 255: − − Hendrick Vroom explains, "the term ''Maya'' [in the Upanishads] has been translated as 'illusion,' but then it does not concern normal illusion. Here 'illusion' does not mean that the world is not real and simply a figment of the human imagination. ''Maya'' means that the world is not as it seems; the world that one experiences is misleading as far as its true nature is concerned."<sup>[69]</sup> According to Wendy Doniger, "to say that the universe is an illusion (māyā) is not to say that it is unreal; it is to say, instead, that it is not what it seems to be, that it is something constantly being made. Māyā not only deceives people about the things they think they know; more basically, it limits their knowledge."<sup>[70]</sup> Line 282:
Line 288: − {| class="MsoNormalTable" − | − |- − | − |- − | − *Isha − *Kena − *Katha − *Prashna − *Mundaka − *Mandukya − *Taittiriya − *Aitareya − *Chandogya − *Brihadaranyaka − *Brahma − *Kaivalya − *Jabala − *Shvetashvatara − *Hamsa − *Aruneya − *Garbha − *Narayana − *Paramahamsa − *Amritabindu − *Amritanada − *Atharvashiras − *Atharvashikha − *Maitrayaniya − *Kaushitaki − *Brihajjabala − *Nrisimha Tapaniya − *Kalagni Rudra − *Maitreya − *Subala − *Kshurika − *Mantrika − *Sarvasara − *Niralamba − *Shukarahasya − *Vajrasuchi − *Tejobindu − *Nadabindu − *Dhyanabindu − *Brahmavidya − *Yogatattva − *Atmabodha − *Naradaparivrajaka − *Trishikhi-brahmana − *Sita − *Yogachudamani − *Nirvana − *Mandala-brahmana − *Dakshinamurti − *Sharabha − *Skanda − *Mahanarayana − *Advayataraka − *Rama Rahasya − *Ramatapaniya − *Vasudeva − *Mudgala − *Shandilya − *Paingala − *Bhikshuka − *Maha − *Sariraka − *Yogashikha − *Turiyatita − *Sannyasa − *Paramahamsaparivrajaka − *Akshamalika − *Avyakta − *Ekakshara − *Annapurna − *Surya − *Akshi − *Adhyatma − *Kundika − *Savitri − *Atma − *Pashupatabrahma − *Parabrahma − *Avadhuta − *Tripuratapini − *Devi − *Tripura − *Kathashruti − *Bhavana − *Rudrahridaya − *Yoga-Kundalini − *Bhasma − *Rudraksha − *Ganapati − *Darshana − *Tarasara − *Mahavakya − *Pancabrahma − *Pranagnihotra − *Gopala-Tapani − *Krishna − *Yajnavalkya − *Varaha − *Shatyayaniya − *Hayagriva − *Dattatreya − *Garuda − *Kali-Santarana − *Jabali − *Saubhagyalakshmi − *Sarasvati-rahasya − *Bahvricha − *Muktikā − |}
→Upanishads as Part of Aranyakas
There is no fixed list of the ''Upanishads'' as newer ones, beyond the Muktika Upanishad list of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed. A collection of Upanishads, namely Upanishad Samgrahah by Pt. J. K. Shastri contains 188 upanishads. <ref>Borthakur, Madhusnita. (2016) Ph. D Thesis ''Title : The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad : A Study'' at Gauhati University</ref>Pracheena Upanishads have long been revered in Sanatana Dharma traditions, and many sampradayas have interpreted the concepts of Upanishads to evolve their sampradaya. These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology to renunciation.
There is no fixed list of the ''Upanishads'' as newer ones, beyond the Muktika Upanishad list of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed. A collection of Upanishads, namely Upanishad Samgrahah by Pt. J. K. Shastri contains 188 upanishads. <ref>Borthakur, Madhusnita. (2016) Ph. D Thesis ''Title : The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad : A Study'' at Gauhati University</ref>Pracheena Upanishads have long been revered in Sanatana Dharma traditions, and many sampradayas have interpreted the concepts of Upanishads to evolve their sampradaya. These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology to renunciation.
===Basis for Classification===
===Basis for Classification===
Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads based on
Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads and it is based on the following factors
#the presence or absence of Shankaracharya's bhasyas (Ten for which bhashyas are available are Dasopanishads and the rest describing devatas. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saurya etc)<ref name=":4" />
#the presence or absence of Shankaracharya's bhasyas (Ten for which bhashyas are available are Dasopanishads and the rest describing devatas. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saurya etc)<ref name=":4" />
#the ancientness of Upanishad based on association with Aranyakas and Brahmanas<ref name=":42222" />
#the ancientness of Upanishad based on association with Aranyakas and Brahmanas<ref name=":42222" />
|4th to 6th Adhyayas of 2nd Prapathaka of 2nd Aranyaka of Aitareya Aranyaka (Page 250 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
|4th to 6th Adhyayas of 2nd Prapathaka of 2nd Aranyaka of Aitareya Aranyaka (Page 250 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
|एेतरेयोपनिषद् ॥ Aitareya Upanishad
|एेतरेयोपनिषद् ॥ Aitareya Upanishad
|
|Mahidasa Aitareya composed this Upanishad
|
|
|-
|-
|3rd to 6th Adhyayas of Shankhyayana Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
|3rd to 6th Adhyayas of Shankhyayana Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
|कौषीतकि उपनिषद् ॥ Kaushitaki Upanishad
|कौषीतकि उपनिषद् ॥ Kaushitaki Upanishad
|
|Given by Kaushitaki Rshi
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|4 Adhyayas
|-
|-
! rowspan="6" |Yajurveda
! rowspan="6" |Yajurveda
|7th to 9th Prapathakas of Taittriya Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
|7th to 9th Prapathakas of Taittriya Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
|तैत्तियोपनिषद् ॥ Taittiriya Upanishad
|तैत्तियोपनिषद् ॥ Taittiriya Upanishad
|
|From source Taittriya Aranyaka
|
|
|-
|-
|Kathasamhita or Kathavalli (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
|Kathasamhita or Kathavalli (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
|कठोपनिषद् ॥ Kathopanishad or काठकोपनिषद् ॥ Kathakopanishad
|कठोपनिषद् ॥ Kathopanishad or काठकोपनिषद् ॥ Kathakopanishad
|As it belongs to Katha samhita
|Comes from the source Katha samhita
|2 Adhyayas with 3 vallis each (total 6 vallis) contains 119 mantras.<ref name=":023222">Kodandaramacharyulu. K. (2011) Kathopanishat - Samajikaamsamulu (Pages 78 to 92) from Upanishat Sudha Lahari, Hyderabad: Sahiti Samskritika Samstha</ref>
|2 Adhyayas with 3 vallis each (total 6 vallis) contains 119 mantras.<ref name=":023222">Kodandaramacharyulu. K. (2011) Kathopanishat - Samajikaamsamulu (Pages 78 to 92) from Upanishat Sudha Lahari, Hyderabad: Sahiti Samskritika Samstha</ref>
|-
|-
|Maitrayaniya Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
|Maitrayaniya Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
|मैत्रायणीय Maitrayaniya Upanishad
|मैत्रायणीय Maitrayaniya Upanishad
|
|Comes from the source Maitrayaniya Aranyaka
|
|
|-
|-
|Brhadaranyakopanishad
|Brhadaranyakopanishad
|
|
|
|Contains 6 Adhyayas
|-
|-
|40th Adhyaya of माध्यन्दिन-शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Madhyandina Shatapatabrahmana
|40th Adhyaya of माध्यन्दिन-शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Madhyandina Shatapatabrahmana
|Associated with Pippalada brahmana (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
|Associated with Pippalada brahmana (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
|प्रश्नोपनिषद् ॥ Prashna Upanishad
|प्रश्नोपनिषद् ॥ Prashna Upanishad
|
|Comes from the Prashna or question and answer format.
|
|
|-
|-
|मुण्डकोपनिषद् ॥ Mundaka Upanishad
|मुण्डकोपनिषद् ॥ Mundaka Upanishad
|
|
|
|3 Mundakas (chapters) each containing 2 Khandas
|-
|-
|Associated with Atharvaveda (Page 55 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
|Associated with Atharvaveda (Page 55 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
|माण्डूक्योपनिषद् ॥ Mandukya Upanishad
|माण्डूक्योपनिषद् ॥ Mandukya Upanishad
|
|
|
|Contains 12 mantras only
|}
|}
===Deity and Samkhya Based Classification===
===Deity and Samkhya Based Classification===
There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to ''Shvetashvatara'', and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.
There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to ''Shvetashvatara'', and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.
==विषयः ॥ Vishaya==
==विषयः ॥ Vishaya==
The main subject of Upanishads is the discussion about Paramatmatattva. There are two kinds of Vidyas : Para (पराविद्या) and Apara (अपराविद्या). Of these Paravidya is supreme and is called Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या). Upanishads present the detailed discussion about Paravidya. Aparavidya is primarily related to Karmas, hence called Karmavidya (कर्मविद्या). The fruits of Karmavidya are perishable while the results of Brahmavidya are indestructable. Aparavidya may not lead one to Moksha (may lead to svarga and other worlds) but Paravidya always gives Moksha.<ref name=":42222" /> They enshrine the
The main subject of Upanishads is the discussion about Paramatmatattva. There are two kinds of Vidyas : Para (पराविद्या) and Apara (अपराविद्या). Of these Paravidya is supreme and is called Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या). Upanishads present the detailed discussion about Paravidya. Aparavidya is primarily related to Karmas, hence called Karmavidya (कर्मविद्या). The fruits of Karmavidya are perishable while the results of Brahmavidya are indestructable. Aparavidya may not lead one to Moksha (may lead to svarga and other worlds) but Paravidya always gives Moksha.<ref name=":42222" />
Some terms which are well explained in the Upanishads include, Prkriti (प्रकृतिः), Purusha (पुरुषः), Paramatma (परमात्मा), Ishvara (ईश्वरः), Jivatma (जीवात्मा), Maya (माया), Brahman (ब्रह्मन्), Avidya (अविद्या), Indriyas (इन्द्रियानि), etc. From the root cause Prkriti the world came into being. Paramatma is Nitya, Puratana, Shasvata (Eternal) devoid of the cycles of birth and death. The Sharira or body is subjected to death and birth but Atma residing in it continues to exist. Just like butter is evenly distributed in milk so also Paramatma is all-pervading in the world. Just like the sparks arise out of fire so also the beings take shape from the Paramatma. Such aspects which are explained in Upanishads have widely developed in the Darshana shastras.
Some terms which are well explained in the Upanishads include, Prkriti (प्रकृतिः), Purusha (पुरुषः), Paramatma (परमात्मा), Ishvara (ईश्वरः), Jivatma (जीवात्मा), Maya (माया), Brahman (ब्रह्मन्), Avidya (अविद्या), Indriyas (इन्द्रियानि), etc. From the root cause Prkriti the world came into being. Paramatma is Nitya, Puratana, Shasvata (Eternal) devoid of the cycles of birth and death. The Sharira or body is subjected to death and birth but Atma residing in it continues to exist. Just like butter is evenly distributed in milk so also Paramatma is all-pervading in the world. Just like the sparks arise out of fire so also the beings take shape from the Paramatma. Such aspects which are explained in Upanishads have widely developed in the Darshana shastras.
''Atman'' is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with ''Atman'', while others state ''Atman'' is part of Brahman but not identical.<sup>[65][66]</sup> This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism. The Brahmasutra by Badarayana (~ 100 BCE) synthesized and unified these somewhat conflicting theories, stating that Atman and Brahman are different in some respects particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level and in the state of Self-realization, Atman and Brahman are identical, non-different.<sup>[65]</sup>
''Atman'' is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with ''Atman'', while others state ''Atman'' is part of Brahman but not identical.<sup>[65][66]</sup> This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism. The Brahmasutra by Badarayana (~ 100 BCE) synthesized and unified these somewhat conflicting theories, stating that Atman and Brahman are different in some respects particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level and in the state of Self-realization, Atman and Brahman are identical, non-different.<sup>[65]</sup>
The idea put forth by the Upanishadic seers that Atman and Brahman are One and the same is one of the greatest contributions made to the thought of the world.<sup>[116][117][118][119]</sup>
The idea put forth by the Upanishadic seers that Atman and Brahman are One and the same is one of the greatest contributions made to the thought of the world.
'''Manas'''
The thinking nature of man has been understood as the very essence of human beings since ancient times in India. Serious searches for unravelling the mystery of mind and its impacts on life proved decisive in deepening the philosophical thoughts of human race making definite impacts upon the socio-cultural standards of life. Studies of mind have contributed much in the fields of arts and science. It is a matter of fact that all philosophical thoughts and knowledge systems in India spring out explicitly or implicitly from the Vedas. The Upaniṣads being an integral part of Vedas represent the philosophical zenith of the Vedic thoughts. The discussions on mind also are dense and deep in the Upanishads.
Aitareya Upanishad describes the origin of cosmic mind along with the origin of universe in a sequential manner. <blockquote>हृदयं निरभिद्यत हृदयान्मनो मनसश्चन्द्रमा । (Aite. Upan. 1.1.4) <ref>Aitareya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D All Adhyayas] )</ref></blockquote>A heart parted open and from it came the mind. from the internal organ, mind, came the Moon.
Thought becomes the power that triggers the process of creation driven by the supposition of a cosmic mind or cosmic intelligent behind creation. While Brhadaranyaka says एतत्सर्वं मन एव " (Brhd. Upan. 1.5.3)<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1 Brahmana 5])</ref> All this is the Mind itself". Isavasya refers to Manas in अनेजदेकं मनसो जवीयो ।<ref>Isavasyopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D All Mantras])</ref> in the context of Atman being faster than the mind. Here the speed is described as a property of mind.
'''Illusion'''
'''Illusion'''
The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).<sup>[67]</sup> The former manifests itself as Ātman (Soul, Self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of ''Atman'' as "true knowledge" (''Vidya''), and the knowledge of ''Maya'' as "not true knowledge" (''Avidya'', Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).<sup>[68]</sup>
The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).<sup>[67]</sup> The former manifests itself as Ātman (Soul, Self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of ''Atman'' as "true knowledge" (''Vidya''), and the knowledge of ''Maya'' as "not true knowledge" (''Avidya'', Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).<sup>[68]</sup>
In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.<sup>[71][72]</sup> ''Maya'', or "illusion", is an important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating Self-knowledge, it is ''Maya'' which obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.<sup>[73][74]</sup>
In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.<sup>[71][72]</sup> ''Maya'', or "illusion", is an important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating Self-knowledge, it is ''Maya'' which obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.<sup>[73][74]</sup>
The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.<sup>[153]</sup> Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.<sup>[151]</sup> Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.<sup>[153]</sup> Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.<sup>[151]</sup> Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
==References==
==References==
<references />
<references />