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#The Pramana (प्रमाणम्) : the instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge

#The Pramana (प्रमाणम्) : the instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge

#The Pramata (प्रमाता) : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

#The Pramata (प्रमाता) : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of  Arthatattva. So it can be said that valid knowledge is not possible if any one of them is absent. Western theories of philosophy use three factors namely, subject, object, and the resultant knowledge. Indian philosophy is distinct and unique in that the means or instrument of valid cognition or knowledge i.e., pramana.<ref name=":3" />

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of  Arthatattva. So it can be said that valid knowledge is not possible if any one of them is absent. Western theories of philosophy use three factors namely, subject, object, and the resultant knowledge. Indian philosophy is distinct and unique in that the means or instrument of valid cognition or knowledge i.e., pramana.<ref name=":3">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref>

Example : A very simplified common place example of these 4 constituents  of Arthatattva may be given as about purchase fruits or vegetables in a market.  

Example : A very simplified common place example of these 4 constituents  of Arthatattva may be given as about purchase fruits or vegetables in a market.  

* Pramata is the person who is weighing and acquiring this knowledge of a specified quantity of vegetables or fruits of 1 Kg.  

* Pramata is the person who is weighing and acquiring this knowledge of a specified quantity of vegetables or fruits of 1 Kg.  

=== प्रमा ॥ Prama ===

== प्रमा ॥ Prama ==

According to Nyaya, as given previously Prama is a definite or certain (असं दिग्धम् । asandigdha), unerring (यथार्थ । yatartha) knowledge and it consists of knowing the object as it is.   

'''Nyaya''' : यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" />

 

Nyaya darshana considers that Prama is a definite or certain (असं दिग्धम् । asandigdha), unerring (यथार्थ । yatartha) knowledge and it consists of knowing the object as it is. Thus the nature of the truth is तद्वति तत्प्रकारकम्  which means the object of knowledge is ''in toto'' without any distortion.   

 

Annambhatta in his Tarkasangraha explains, Yatartha jnana is Prama. He clearly defines the difference between Prama and Aprama as follows<blockquote>॥ तद्वति तत्प्रकारकोऽनुभवो यथार्थः। यथा रजते इदं रजतमिति ज्ञानम्। सैव प्रमेच्युते ॥१९॥॥ (Tark. Samg. 3.19)<ref name=":2">Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Gunalakshana Prakarana])</ref></blockquote>Summary : Thus Prama is that which pertains to यथार्थानुभवः। definite knowledge of an object which is true presentational in character, just as the knowledge an object of silver as "this is silver". Here the knowledge about the quality of silverness (रजतत्वम्) of the object is ''in toto'' without any distortion to silver.

Similar to Nyaya, Annambhatta's Tarkasangraha explains that Yatartha Jnana is Prama. It clearly defines the difference between Prama and Aprama as follows<blockquote>यथा रजते इदं रजतमिति ज्ञानम्। सैव प्रमेच्युते ॥१९॥॥ (Tark. Samg. 3.19)<ref name=":2">Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Gunalakshana Prakarana])</ref></blockquote>Summary : Thus Prama is that which pertains to यथार्थानुभवः। definite knowledge of an object which is true presentational in character, just as the knowledge an object of silver as "this is silver". Here the knowledge about the quality of silverness (रजतत्वम्) of the object is ''in toto'' without any distortion to silver.

But knowledge is invalid (अयथार्थः । ayatartha) when a character not possessed by the object of cognition is attributed to that object and is called Aprama.<ref name=":3">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref><blockquote>तदभाववति तत्प्रकारकोऽनुभवोऽयथार्थः। यथा शुक्ताविदं रजतमिति। सैव अप्रमा इत्युच्यते॥२०॥ (Tark. Samg. 3.20)<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>Summary : When a piece of shell is called "this is silver", then the cognition is invalid. For in this case "silverness" is a quality which does not belong to the shell but is being attributed to it is called [[Aprama (अप्रमा)|Aprama]].<ref name=":3" />

'''Samkhya''' : द्वयोरेकतरस्यवाप्यसन्निकृष्टार्थपरिच्छित्तिः प्रमा ...(प्रमा स्वरूपं, प्रमाणेयत्ता च) dvayorekatarasyavāpyasannikr̥ṣṭārthaparicchittiḥ pramā... (pramā svarūpaṁ) (Samk. Sutr. 1.87)<ref name=":7">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Sutras]</ref>

Thus Prama has two aspects

Samkhya defines Prama and Pramana as follows

 

Nyaya darshana admits that the nature of the truth is तद्वति तत्प्रकारकम्  which means the object of knowledge is ''in toto'' without any distortion. There are other versions about what constitutes Prama by different Bharatiya shastras.<ref name=":3" />

 

अदुष्टं विद्या । वैशेषिक-९,२.१२ । adustam vidya (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)<ref>Vaiseshika [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutras]</ref>

 

There are other versions about what constitutes Prama by different Bharatiya shastras.<ref name=":3" />

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Difference between Prama and Jnana  

|+Difference between Prama and Jnana  

|'''Theory of Paraprakasatva'''. Knowledge being formless and not self luminous cannot be directly perceived but be inferred by a new quality called manifestedness in the object (Jnanata)(Pg 8 of Reference <ref name=":4" />).

|'''Theory of Paraprakasatva'''. Knowledge being formless and not self luminous cannot be directly perceived but be inferred by a new quality called manifestedness in the object (Jnanata)(Pg 8 of Reference <ref name=":4" />).

|}

|}

== प्रमेयः ॥ Prameya ==

 

 

 

 

 

=== प्रमेयः ॥ Prameya ===

Nyaya sutras of Gautama explicitly define the Premaya or the objects of cognition, which are to be known. It is classified into 12 kinds.<blockquote>आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम्।।९ ।।{प्रमेयौद्देशसूत्रम्}<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref></blockquote>Atma (आत्मा), Body (शरीरम्), Sense-organs (इन्द्रियाणि), Objects (अर्थः), Knowledge (बुद्धिः), Mind (मनः), Activity (प्रवृत्तिः), Defect (दोषः like Raga, dvesha etc), Rebirth (प्रेत्यभाव), Result (फलम्), Pain (दुःखा), and Release from worldly bonds (अपवर्गाः)  constitute the objects of cognition.

Nyaya sutras of Gautama explicitly define the Premaya or the objects of cognition, which are to be known. It is classified into 12 kinds.<blockquote>आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम्।।९ ।।{प्रमेयौद्देशसूत्रम्}<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref></blockquote>Atma (आत्मा), Body (शरीरम्), Sense-organs (इन्द्रियाणि), Objects (अर्थः), Knowledge (बुद्धिः), Mind (मनः), Activity (प्रवृत्तिः), Defect (दोषः like Raga, dvesha etc), Rebirth (प्रेत्यभाव), Result (फलम्), Pain (दुःखा), and Release from worldly bonds (अपवर्गाः)  constitute the objects of cognition.

<blockquote>तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः।।२२।।{अपवर्गलक्षणम्}</blockquote>Absolute release from the aforesaid Dukha or pain etc is Apavarga.  <blockquote>सुखसाधनस्य दुःखानुषङ्गदुखेन अविप्रयोगाद्विविध-बन्धनायोगाद्दुःखमिति समाधिभावनमुपदिश्यते समाहितो भावयति भावययन्निर्विद्यते विर्विण्णस्य वैराग्यं विरक्तस्यापवर्ग इति । जन्ममरणप्रवन्धोच्छेदः सर्वदुःखप्रहाणमपवर्ग इति । अस्य तु तत्वज्ञानादपवर्गो मिथ्थाज्ञानात्संसार इति । (Vats. Bhas. Page 71 and 72)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>All the instruments of Sukha are adhered to dukha and can be never separated from it. The presence of various difficulties in life indicate Dukha is inseparable from life. One should practice Samadhi (thoughtful contemplation). As when one is thoughtful he comprehends the situation and diverts himself from the worldly things making him free from all attachment thus attaining Apavarga which is nothing but cessation of cycle of births and deaths. Liberation from all sorrows is Apavarga. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

<blockquote>तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः।।२२।।{अपवर्गलक्षणम्}</blockquote>Absolute release from the aforesaid Dukha or pain etc is Apavarga.  <blockquote>सुखसाधनस्य दुःखानुषङ्गदुखेन अविप्रयोगाद्विविध-बन्धनायोगाद्दुःखमिति समाधिभावनमुपदिश्यते समाहितो भावयति भावययन्निर्विद्यते विर्विण्णस्य वैराग्यं विरक्तस्यापवर्ग इति । जन्ममरणप्रवन्धोच्छेदः सर्वदुःखप्रहाणमपवर्ग इति । अस्य तु तत्वज्ञानादपवर्गो मिथ्थाज्ञानात्संसार इति । (Vats. Bhas. Page 71 and 72)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>All the instruments of Sukha are adhered to dukha and can be never separated from it. The presence of various difficulties in life indicate Dukha is inseparable from life. One should practice Samadhi (thoughtful contemplation). As when one is thoughtful he comprehends the situation and diverts himself from the worldly things making him free from all attachment thus attaining Apavarga which is nothing but cessation of cycle of births and deaths. Liberation from all sorrows is Apavarga. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

=== प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramana ===

== प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramana ==

Pramana i.e., the instrument of Prama is the most fundamental and unique about the tattva shastras. Nyaya darshana deals extensively about the siddhantas of jnana (theory of Knowledge). The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.<blockquote>प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्थ्थदर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ।... तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य समीहा प्रवृत्तिरित्युच्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>Meaning : The effort of the agent (man) stimulated by the desire to acquire (Ipsa । ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing (जिहासा । Jihasa roga etc) is what is called प्रवृत्तिः (pravrtti । exertion). Two of these together inspire the agent into Prvritti or Action. (Page 20 of Reference <ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref>) <blockquote>अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Summary : The अर्थ (object or thing) cognised by means of Pramana, or the instrument of cognition is of four kinds, viz., Pleasure, Source of Pleasure, Pain, Source of Pain. These objects of cognition, however, are innumerable owing to the fact of the number of living creatures being infinite. (Page 22 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

Pramana i.e., the instrument of Prama is the most fundamental and unique about the tattva shastras. Few shastras discuss the theories of cognition, but Nyaya darshana deals extensively about the siddhantas of jnana and hence is considered here for explaining the basic concepts.

 

'''Nyaya :''' The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.<blockquote>प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्थ्थदर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ।... तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य समीहा प्रवृत्तिरित्युच्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>Meaning : The effort of the agent (man) stimulated by the desire to acquire (Ipsa । ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing (जिहासा । Jihasa roga etc) is what is called प्रवृत्तिः (pravrtti । exertion). Two of these together inspire the agent into Prvritti or Action. (Page 20 of Reference <ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref>) <blockquote>अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Summary : The अर्थ (object or thing) cognised by means of Pramana, or the instrument of cognition is of four kinds, viz., Pleasure, Source of Pleasure, Pain, Source of Pain. These objects of cognition, however, are innumerable owing to the fact of the number of living creatures being infinite. (Page 22 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

 

According to another scholar Pramana is defined as प्रकृष्टरूपेण अनुमाति अनेन (Page 12 of Reference <ref name=":1" />)<blockquote>''"To know an object correctly is a kind of proper measurement of an object. 'knowing' is metaphorically called 'measuring' through our cognition. As a valid cognition gives us a picture of a particular object, it may be described as 'intellectual measurement'."''</blockquote>Various schools of Darshanas, more or less agree in respect to the literal meaning as well as the function or purpose of Pramana that it is conducive to valid knowledge (Prama). While all agree that Pramana is defined as the instrument or Karana of Prama, there is much diversity of opinion among the Darshanik schools as to the exact nature and scope of the karana of valid knowledge.(Pages 39 to 42 of Reference <ref name=":3" />)

According to another scholar Pramana is defined as प्रकृष्टरूपेण अनुमाति अनेन (Page 12 of Reference <ref name=":1" />)<blockquote>''"To know an object correctly is a kind of proper measurement of an object. 'knowing' is metaphorically called 'measuring' through our cognition. As a valid cognition gives us a picture of a particular object, it may be described as 'intellectual measurement'."''</blockquote>Various schools of Darshanas, more or less agree with respect to the literal meaning as well as the function or purpose of Pramana that it is conducive to valid knowledge (Prama). While all agree that Pramana is defined as the instrument or Karana of Prama, there is much diversity of opinion among the Darshanika schools as to the exact nature and scope of the karana of valid knowledge. (Pages 39 to 42 of Reference <ref name=":3" />)

* Prabhakara school of Mimamsa considers pramana as an immediate experience (anubhuti) which is different from memory or Smrti.

* Prabhakara school of Mimamsa considers pramana as an immediate experience (anubhuti) which is different from memory or Smrti.

* Bhatta school of Mimamsa and Advaita defines pramana as instrument of valid cognition of an object which is previously unknown and is not sublated later on.

* Bhatta school of Mimamsa and Advaita defines pramana as instrument of valid cognition of an object which is previously unknown and is not sublated later on.

* Samkhya school also defines it as an instrument of valid cognition.

* Samkhya school also defines it as an exceptional instrument of valid cognition.

* Nyaya and Vaiseshika both accept pramana as instrument of valid cognition - pramakaranam pramanam.

* Nyaya and Vaiseshika both accept pramana as instrument of valid cognition - pramakaranam pramanam.

* Tarka school holds that karana is the uncommon causal condition (asadharana karanam), and pramana is an active special uncommon cause of knowledge or prama.

* Tarka school holds that karana is the uncommon causal condition (asadharana karanam), and pramana is an active special uncommon cause of knowledge or prama.