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Line 420: − − Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads − have dominated Indian philosophy, religion and life ever since their − appearance.<sup>[35]</sup> The Upanishads are respected not because they are considered revealed (''Shruti''), but because they present spiritual ideas that are inspiring.<sup>[36]</sup> The Upanishads are treatises on Brahman-knowledge, that is knowledge of − Ultimate Hidden Reality, and their presentation of philosophy presumes, − "it is by a strictly personal effort that one can reach the truth".<sup>[37]</sup> In the Upanishads, states Radhakrishnan, knowledge is a means to − freedom, and philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom by a way of life.<sup>[38]</sup> Line 481:
Line 474: − − According to Jayatilleke, the thinkers of Upanishadic texts can be − grouped into two categories.<sup>[99]</sup> One group, which includes Early Upanishads − along with some Middle and Late Upanishads, were composed by metaphysicians who − used rational arguments and empirical experience to formulate their − speculations and philosophical premises. The second group includes many middle − and later Upanishads, where their authors professed theories based on yoga and − personal experiences.<sup>[99]</sup> Yoga philosophy and practice, adds Jayatilleke, − is "not entirely absent in the Early Upanishads".<sup>[99]</sup> The development of thought in these Upanishadic − theories contrasted with Buddhism, since the Upanishadic inquiry assumed there − is a soul (Atman), while Buddhism assumed there is no soul (''Anatta''), states − Jayatilleke.<sup>[100]</sup> Line 618:
Line 599: − − '''Similarities with Platonic − thought''' − − ''See also: Proto-Indo-European religion, Satya, Ṛta, Asha, and Form of the Good'' − − Several scholars have recognised parallels between the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato and that of the Upanishads, including their ideas on sources of knowledge, concept of justice and path − to salvation, and Plato's allegory of the cave. Platonic psychology with its − divisions of reason, spirit and appetite, also bears resemblance to the three ''gunas'' in the Indian philosophy of Samkhya.<sup>[154][155][note 10]</sup> − − Based on these common features some scholars, most notably E.J. Urwick − and M.L. West, have argued that the Ancient Greek philosophy was influenced by, and − borrowed some core concepts from, the Upanishads. Various mechanisms for such a − transmission of knowledge have been conjectured including Pythagoras traveling − as far as India; Indian philosophers visiting Athens and meeting Socrates; Plato encountering the ideas when in exile in Syracuse; or, − intermediated through Persia.<sup>[154][157]</sup> − − However other scholars, such as Arthur Berriedale Keith, J. Burnet and A.R. Wadia, believe that the two systems developed − independently. They note that there is no historical evidence of the − philosophers of the two schools meeting, and point out significant differences − in the stage of development, orientation and goals of the two philosophical − systems. Wadia writes that Plato's metaphysics were rooted in ''this'' life − and his primary aim was to develop an ideal state.<sup>[155]</sup> In contrast, Upanishadic focus was the − individual, the self (atman, soul), self-knowledge, and the means of an − individual's moksha (freedom, liberation in this life or after-life).<sup>[158][80]</sup> − − '''Translations''' − − The Upanishads have been translated into various languages including Persian, Italian, Urdu, French, Latin, German, English, Dutch, Polish, Japanese, Spanish and Russian.<sup>[161]</sup> The Moghul Emperor Akbar's reign (1556–1586) saw the first translations of the Upanishads into − Persian.<sup>[162][163]</sup> His great-grandson, Sultan Mohammed Dara Shikoh, produced a collection called ''Oupanekhat'' in 1656, wherein 50 − Upanishads were translated from Sanskrit into Persian.<sup>[164]</sup> − − Anquetil Duperron, a French Orientalist − received a manuscript of the ''Oupanekhat'' and translated the Persian − version into French and Latin, publishing the Latin translation in two volumes − in 1801–1802 as ''Oupneck'hat''.<sup>[164][162]</sup> The French translation was never published.<sup>[165]</sup> The Latin version was the initial introduction − of Upanishadic thought to Western scholars.<sup>[166]</sup> However, according to Deussen, the Persian − translators took great liberties in translating the text and at times changed − the meaning.<sup>[167]</sup> − − The first Sanskrit to English translation of the Aitareya Upanishad was made by Colebrooke,<sup>[81]</sup> in 1805 and the first English translation of the Kena Upanishad was made by Rammohun Roy in 1816.<sup>[82][83][84]</sup> Colebrooke was aware of 170 Upanishads. Sadhale's catalog − from 1985, the ''Upaniṣad-vākya-mahā-kośa'' lists 223 Upanishads.<sup>[172]</sup> − − The first German translation appeared in 1832 and Roer's English version − appeared in 1853. However, Max Mueller's 1879 and 1884 editions were the first − systematic English treatment to include the 12 Principal Upanishads.<sup>[161]</sup> Other major translations of the Upanishads have − been by Robert Ernest Hume (13 Principal Upanishads),<sup>[85]</sup> Paul Deussen (60 Upanishads),<sup>[174]</sup> Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (18 Upanishads),<sup>[86]</sup> and Patrick Olivelle (32 Upanishads in two books).<sup>[176][149]</sup> − − '''Reception in the West''' − − The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer read the Latin translation − and praised the Upanishads in his main work, ''The World as Will and Representation'' (1819), as − well as in his ''Parerga and Paralipomena'' (1851).<sup>[177]</sup> He found his own philosophy was in accord with − the Upanishads, which taught that the individual is a manifestation of the one − basis of reality. For Schopenhauer, that fundamentally real underlying unity is − what we know in ourselves as "will". Schopenhauer used to keep a copy − of the Latin ''Oupnekhet'' by his side and commented, − − It has been the solace of my − life, it will be the solace of my death.<sup>[178]</sup> − − Another German philosopher, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, praised − the mystical and spiritual aspects of the Upanishads.<sup>[179]</sup> Schelling and other philosophers associated − with German idealism were dissatisfied with Christianity as propagated by churches. They were fascinated − with the Vedas and the Upanishads.<sup>[179]</sup> In the United States, the group known as the Transcendentalists were influenced by the German − idealists. These Americans, such as Emerson and Thoreau, were not satisfied with traditional Christian mythology and therefore − embraced Schelling's interpretation of Kant's Transcendental idealism, as well as his celebration − of the romantic, exotic, mystical aspect of the Upanishads. As a result of the − influence of these writers, the Upanishads gained renown in Western countries.<sup>[180]</sup> − − One of the great English-language poets of the 20th century, T. S. Eliot, inspired by his reading of the Upanishads, based the final portion of − his famous poem ''The Waste Land'' (1922) upon one of its − verses.<sup>[181]</sup> Erwin Schrödinger, the great quantum physicist − said, − − The multiplicity is only − apparent. This is the doctrine of the Upanishads. And not of the Upanishads − only. The mystical experience of the union with God regularly leads to this − view, unless strong prejudices stand in the West.<sup>[182]</sup> − − Eknath Easwaran, in translating the − Upanishads, articulates how they − − ...form snapshots of towering − peaks of consciousness taken at various times by different observers and dispatched − with just the barest kind of explanation.<sup>[183]</sup> − − Juan Mascaró states that the Upanishads represents for the − Hindu approximately what the New Testament represents for the Christian, and that the − message of the Upanishads can be summarized in the words, "the kingdom of − God is within you".<sup>[87]</sup> − − Paul Deussen in his review of the Upanishads, states that − the texts emphasize Brahman-Atman as something that can experienced, but not − defined.<sup>[88]</sup> This view of the soul and self are similar, states Deussen, to those − found in the dialogues of Plato and elsewhere. The Upanishads insisted on − oneness of soul, excluded all plurality, and therefore, all proximity in space, − all succession in time, all interdependence as cause and effect, and all − opposition as subject and object.<sup>[88]</sup> Max Muller, in his review of the Upanishads, summarizes the lack of − systematic philosophy and the central theme in the Upanishads as follows, − − There is not what could be called a philosophical system in these − Upanishads. They are, in the true sense of the word, guesses at truth, − frequently contradicting each other, yet all tending in one direction. The − key-note of the old Upanishads is "know thyself," but with a much − deeper meaning than that of the ''γνῶθι σεαυτόν'' of the Delphic Oracle. The "know thyself"of the Upanishads means, know thy true self, that which underlines thine Ego, − and find it and know it in the highest, the eternal Self, the One without a − second, which underlies the whole world. − − ''— Max Muller<sup>[159]</sup>'' − − '''See also''' − − · − '''''Hinduism portal''''' − * 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written − * Bhagavad Gita − * Hinduism
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Upanishads (Samskrit : उपनिषद) are the concluding segments, available at the end of each of the Vedas, hence they are also referred to as the ''Vedanta''.
Upanishads (Samskrit : उपनिषद) are the concluding segments, available at the end of each of the Vedas sometimes as part of Aranyakas, hence they are also referred to as the ''Vedanta''. They do not forbid the rituals or rites prescribed in the Karmakanda but expound that only through Jnana one can attain moksha.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref>
The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas.
The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas.
There are more than 200 Upanishads but there are 10 Principal or Mukhya Upanishads. Some traditions accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13.
There are more than 200 Upanishads but there are 10 Principal or Mukhya Upanishads. Some traditions accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13.
== परिचय || Introduction ==
== परिचयः || Introduction ==
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 30-31</ref><ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part19/chap6.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref>
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 30-31</ref><ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part19/chap6.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref>
== Etymology ==
== Etymology ==
The Sanskrit term ''Upaniṣad'' (u = at, pa = foot, nishat =sitting down) translates to "sitting at the foot/feet of", referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge.<sup>[9]</sup>
The Sanskrit term ''Upaniṣad'' (उ = at, pa = foot, nishat =sitting down) translates to "sitting at the foot/feet of", referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge.<sup>[9]</sup>
Shri Adi Shankara explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means ''Ātmavidyā'', that is, "knowledge of the Self", or ''Brahmavidyā'' "knowledge of Brahma". The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the fourth verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad.
Shri Adi Shankara explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means ''Ātmavidyā'', that is, "knowledge of the Self", or ''Brahmavidyā'' "knowledge of Brahma". The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the fourth verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad.
inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the
inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the
foundation of its Vedanta school.<sup>[75]</sup> They contain a plurality of ideas.<sup>[76][note 8]</sup>
foundation of its Vedanta school.<sup>[75]</sup> They contain a plurality of ideas.<sup>[76][note 8]</sup>
The Upanishads include sections on philosophical theories that have been
The Upanishads include sections on philosophical theories that have been
only and sans a second" in the Upanishads.<sup>[86]</sup> Brahman-Atman and Self-realization develops, in
only and sans a second" in the Upanishads.<sup>[86]</sup> Brahman-Atman and Self-realization develops, in
the Upanishad, as the means to moksha (liberation, freedom in this life or after-life).<sup>[50][51][52]</sup>
the Upanishad, as the means to moksha (liberation, freedom in this life or after-life).<sup>[50][51][52]</sup>
'''Brahman and Atman'''
'''Brahman and Atman'''
bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.<sup>[151]</sup> Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita
bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.<sup>[151]</sup> Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita
sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
'''References'''
'''References'''