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Rasayana Shastra (Samskrit: रसायनशास्त्रम्) referred to the subject of Chemistry based on the chemical activities involved in biological and inorganic processes. It was also called Rasatantra, Rasa Kriya or Rasa Vidya roughly translating to 'Science of Liquids'. "Rasa" in ayurvedic terminology refers to mercury and [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] exclusively deals with the treatment using mercury and its compounds. It is well known that science and technology in ancient and medieval India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery etc.  

Rasayana Shastra (Samskrit: रसायनशास्त्रम्) referred to the subject of Chemistry based on the chemical activities involved in biological and inorganic processes. It was also called Rasatantra, Rasa Kriya or Rasa Vidya roughly translating to 'Science of Liquids'. "Rasa" in ayurvedic terminology refers to mercury and [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] exclusively deals with the treatment using mercury and its compounds. It is well known that science and technology in ancient and medieval India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery etc.  

Chemistry is the study of elements present in the universe which involves the nature of the elements, their occurrence, their physical and chemical properties, their compounds, reactivity, uses and applications. Ancient samskrit literary works supported by the archaeological excavations all over the nation have proved the development of this science as early as the vedic period. The earliest evidence of chemical knowledge possessed by the ancient Indians in the  prehistoric age has been brought to light by the findings of archaeological excavations in Baluchistan, Sindh and Punjab. The ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization that have been unearthed at in these areas furnish much information about the chemical knowledge acquired by the Indus Valley people, particularly with reference to the practical arts like pottery, brick-making, and extraction and working of metals.<ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref>

Chemistry is the study of elements present in the universe which involves the nature of the elements, their occurrence, their physical and chemical properties, their compounds, reactivity, uses and applications. Ancient samskrit literary works supported by the archaeological excavations all over the nation have proved the development of this science as early as the vedic period. The earliest evidence of chemical knowledge possessed by the ancient Indians in the  prehistoric age has been brought to light by the findings of archaeological excavations in Baluchistan, Sindh and Punjab. The ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization that have been unearthed at in these areas furnish much information about the chemical knowledge acquired by the Indus Valley people, particularly with reference to the practical arts like pottery, brick-making, and extraction and working of metals.<ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref>  

The findings testify to the facts that the people in the remote ages were acquainted with the art of making painted potteries as well as with the preparation and working of metallic copper. Prafulla Chandra Ray was a renowned researcher of chemistry, who set up several chemical industries in Bengal and is regarded as the "Father of Indian Chemistry" in modern times.  

The findings testify to the facts that the people in the remote ages were acquainted with the art of making painted potteries as well as with the preparation and working of metallic copper. Prafulla Chandra Ray was a renowned researcher of chemistry, who set up several chemical industries in Bengal and is regarded as the "Father of Indian Chemistry" in modern times.  

Ancient India's contribution to science and technology include principles of chemistry which did not remain abstract but found expression in practical activities like fermentation processes, distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes and pigments and extraction of sugar, extraction of oil from oilseeds, and metallurgy which has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the earliest ages. Archaeologists' findings of the Indus valley civilization showed a well developed urban system with public baths, streets, granaries, temples, houses with baked bricks, mass production of pottery and even a script of their own which depicted the story of early chemistry.<ref name=":0">Purwar, Chhavi. ''[https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/7278.pdf Significant Contribution of Chemistry in Ancient Indian Science and Technology.]'' International Journal of Development Research Vol. 06, Issue, 12, pp.10784-10788, December, 2016</ref>  

Ancient India's contribution to science and technology include principles of chemistry which did not remain abstract but found expression in practical activities like fermentation processes, distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes and pigments and extraction of sugar, extraction of oil from oilseeds, and metallurgy which has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the earliest ages. Archaeologists' findings of the Indus valley civilization showed a well developed urban system with public baths, streets, granaries, temples, houses with baked bricks, mass production of pottery and even a script of their own which depicted the story of early chemistry.<ref name=":0">Purwar, Chhavi. ''[https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/7278.pdf Significant Contribution of Chemistry in Ancient Indian Science and Technology.]'' International Journal of Development Research Vol. 06, Issue, 12, pp.10784-10788, December, 2016</ref>  

In pottery making chemical processes were carried out in which materials were mixed, fired and moulded to achieve their objective. In the Rajasthan desert many pottery pieces of different shapes, sizes and colours were found. At MohenjoDaro it was found that for the construction of a well, gypsum cement had been used which contained clay, lime, sand and traces of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and was light grey in colour. Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses drains, boundary walls, public bath etc. Many useful products invented were plasters, hair washes, medicinal preparations etc. which had a number of minerals in them and were used by Indus Valley people.

In pottery making chemical processes were carried out in which materials were mixed, fired and moulded to achieve their objective. In the Rajasthan desert many pottery pieces of different shapes, sizes and colours were found. At Mohenjo-Daro it was found that for the construction of a well, gypsum cement had been used which contained clay, lime, sand and traces of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and was light grey in colour. Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses drains, boundary walls, public bath etc. Many useful products invented were plasters, hair washes, medicinal preparations etc. which had a number of minerals in them and were used by Indus Valley people.

Copper utensils, iron, seals, gold and silver ornaments, and terracotta discs and painted grey ware pottery have all been found in thirty five archaeological sites in North India. Scientific dating of these artifacts corresponds to the non-aryan invasion model of Indian antiquity.<ref name=":0" />

Copper utensils, iron, seals, gold and silver ornaments, and terracotta discs and painted grey ware pottery have all been found in thirty five archaeological sites in North India. Scientific dating of these artifacts corresponds to the non-aryan invasion model of Indian antiquity.<ref name=":0" />

Thus the major chemical products that developed gradually over various eras can be summarized as glass, bricks and pottery, paper, soap, ink, dyeing, cosmetics and perfumes, alcoholic beverages, food processing, pharmaceuticals,  mining techniques and alloy preparations, gun powder and saltpetre, and oilseeds.

Thus the major chemical products that developed gradually over various eras can be summarized as glass, bricks and pottery, paper, soap, ink, dyeing, cosmetics and perfumes, alcoholic beverages, food processing, pharmaceuticals,  mining techniques and alloy preparations, gun powder and saltpetre, and oilseeds. The practical chemists—potters, brewers, dyers, metalsmiths, glassmakers and the like—contributed a great deal to the growth of technology and in no small measure to the economic welfare of the ancient communities. They were noted for their craftsmanship and experimental skills involving many a chemical transformation both qualitative and quantitative, even though they did not appear to have formulated any theoretical knowledge of the chemical transformations.<ref name=":8">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 274</ref>

== Alchemical Ideas in the Vedas ==

== Alchemical Ideas in the Vedas ==

2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana)  

2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana)  

The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting. In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>  

The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting. In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>

 

 

 

=== Yantras ===

=== Yantras ===

Many Rasashastra texts carefully spell out the layout of the laboratory, with four doors, an esoteric symbol (RASALINGA) in the east, furnaces in the southeast, instruments in the northwest, etc.

Many Rasashastra texts carefully spell out the layout of the laboratory, with four doors, an esoteric symbol (RASALINGA) in the east, furnaces in the southeast, instruments in the northwest, etc termed as Rasashala.  

== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==

== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==

# Ayurvedic Preparations: medical preparations including purificatory processes of mercurial compounds involved chemical reactions and apparatuses are discussed in [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] and [[Rasayana (रसायनम्)|Rasayana]].

# Ayurvedic Preparations: medical preparations including purificatory processes of mercurial compounds involved chemical reactions and apparatuses are discussed in [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] and [[Rasayana (रसायनम्)|Rasayana]].

# Chemical arts and crafts: they include the following

# Chemical arts and crafts: they include the following

## '''Pottery''': Involves prolonged heating, fusion, evaporation, and treatment of minerals and pigments for coloring and art.

##'''Pottery''': Involves prolonged heating, fusion, evaporation, and treatment of minerals and pigments for coloring and art.

## '''Bead and Glass making''': Glass is a solid fused mixture of lime, alkali, sand and metallic oxides. They were coloured by adding colouring agents like metal oxides. The Ramayana, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Brihatsamhita mention glass being used. Evidences of glass slag and glazing are found in Hastinapur, Takshila, Nevasa Kolhapur, Maheshwar and Paunar.<ref name=":0" />

## '''Bead and Glass making''': Glass is a solid fused mixture of lime, alkali, sand and metallic oxides. They were coloured by adding colouring agents like metal oxides. The Ramayana, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Brihatsamhita mention glass being used. Evidences of glass slag and glazing are found in Hastinapur, Takshila, Nevasa Kolhapur, Maheshwar and Paunar.<ref name=":0" />

## '''Jewellery making'''

## '''Jewellery making'''

=== Glass Industry ===

=== Glass Industry ===

Main article Glass (काचः)

Glass (kacha) was differentiated from crystal (sphatika) as early as in the days of Susruta (Chap. 46). Archaeological evidences support the use of glass beads, bangles, jars, tiles etc. made from 6th or 5th century' B.C. onwards. Most of the glass objects were colored. Glass manufacture practiced as an indigenous industry in ancient India is seen in excavations particularly in the south (Arikamedu, Uraiyur). Along with this, the technique of coloring glass also developed. The glass specimens show that the glass makers of ancient India were highly competent in giving different colors and shades to glass objects. In the drama Vasavadatta (6th ceutury A.D.) mention has been made of glass colored like the neck of peacock.<ref name=":1" />

 

 

Chemical analysis revealed, just like in the case of pottery, that coloring agents were obtained from the metallic ores. Different chemicals added to them finally led to attribute different shades of colors and glazes to the glass objects. Colored glass was prepared by mixing silicates of soda, lime and appropriate metallic oxides.<ref>Jaggi, O.P. (1977) ''Science and Technology in Ancient India, New Delhi. Vol I'', p.203</ref> Copper oxide, iron oxide, manganese oxides were generally used to give colors to the glass articles as for pottery. A special type of glass beads of 350 A.D. to 750 A.D. found at Ahicchatra is of gold foil glass. Layers of gold foils were poured in between two glass layers. All these prove that craftsmen in ancient India were highly skillful in the sophisticated technique of using metallic ores and chemicals as pigments in coloring very high temperature melting media like glass.

== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ==

== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ==

Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient and medieval texts reveal that people had this knowledge as outlined below.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />

Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient and medieval texts reveal that people had this knowledge as outlined below.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />