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Hiranyagarbha signifies the 'golden womb' or source of creation. Described as the cosmic entity it represents the potential and creative force behind worldly existence. Hiranyagarbha is the Prana, the vital force, the first manifestation as per Chandogya Upanishad. The whole cosmos is governed and activated by Prana.<ref>''Chandogya Upanisad'' (S. Lokeswarananda, Trans.). (1995). Sri Ramakrishna Math.</ref>

Hiranyagarbha signifies the 'golden womb' or source of creation. Described as the cosmic entity it represents the potential and creative force behind worldly existence. Hiranyagarbha is the Prana, the vital force, the first manifestation as per Chandogya Upanishad. The whole cosmos is governed and activated by Prana.<ref>''Chandogya Upanisad'' (S. Lokeswarananda, Trans.). (1995). Sri Ramakrishna Math.</ref>

==== Atomistic Conception of Matter ====

=== Atomistic Conception of Matter ===

Some important concepts of chemistry that are studied in modern times were proposed in ancient times in Indian texts.  

Some important concepts of chemistry that are studied in modern times were proposed in ancient times primarily in Samkhya and Vaiseshika darshanas.  

According to the Samkhya school's theory of matter, '''tanmatras''' are five subtle elements imperceptible to the human senses as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation of gunas from Prakriti as explained above during evolution.   

According to the Samkhya school's theory of matter, '''tanmatras''' are five subtle elements or infra-atomic particles imperceptible to the human senses as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation of gunas from Prakriti as explained above during evolution. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to five grosser elements - the Panchamahabhutas namely, akasa (space or ether), vayu (air), tejas (fire), apa (water), and bhumi (earth). They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. Earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry.   

 

 

== Chemistry in Ancient India ==

== Chemistry in Ancient India ==

In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahayana phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasaratnakara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.  

In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> The Ramayana and the Mahabharata mention weapons with arrowheads coated with a variety of chemicals, indicating their knowledge of Alchemy. Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahayana phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasaratnakara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.

 

Many Rasashastra texts carefully spell out the layout of the laboratory, with four doors, an esoteric symbol (RASALINGA) in the east, furnaces in the southeast, instruments in the northwest, etc.  

== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==

== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==

=== Origin of Paints ===

=== Origin of Paints ===

Pottery and pottery-painting were practised in India ever since the dawn of civilisation. In archaeological parlance, pottery is regarded as index to culture; an alphabet to history. Generally it is studied typologically, a correlation with others, rather than extensive technological anaysis. However technological details such as - composition of clay, tempering agents, nature and components of the slips or glaze, nature of firing, porosity test and different chemical analyses - stand witness to not only the technological advancement of that culture but throws light on social, cultural, religious, economic, political aspects of that culture. Pottery both of fine and coarse types found in excavation sites of the Indian sub-continent are of many varieties, such as Red Ware, Buff Ware, Gray Ware, Black and Red Ware etc., broadly classified based on their colours.

Pottery and pottery-painting were practised in India ever since the dawn of civilisation. In archaeological parlance, pottery is regarded as index to culture; an alphabet to history. Generally it is studied typologically, a correlation with others, rather than extensive technological analysis. However technological details such as - composition of clay, tempering agents, nature and components of the slips or glaze, nature of firing, porosity test and different chemical analyses - stand witness to not only the technological advancement of that culture but throws light on social, cultural, religious, economic, political aspects of that culture. Pottery both of fine and coarse types found in excavation sites of the Indian sub-continent are of many varieties, such as Red Ware, Buff Ware, Gray Ware, Black and Red Ware etc., broadly classified based on their colours.

==== Pottery - Preparation and Painting ====

==== Pottery - Preparation and Painting ====

Chemical analysis revealed, just like in the case of pottery, that colouring agents were obtained from the metallic ores. Different chemicals added to them finally led to attribute different shades of colours and glazes to the glass objects. Coloured glass was prepared by mixing silicates of soda, lime and appropriate metallic oxides<ref>Jaggi, O.P. (1977) ''Science and Technology in Ancient India, New Delhi. Vol I'', p.203</ref>. Copper oxide, iron oxide, manganese oxides were generally used to give colours to the glass articles as for pottery. A special type of glass beads of 350 A.D. to 750 A.D. found at Ahicchatra is of gold foil glass. Layers of gold foils were poured in between two glass layers. All these prove that craftsmen in ancient India were highly skillful in the sophisticated technique of using metallic ores and chemicals as pigments in colouring very high temperature melting media like glass.

Chemical analysis revealed, just like in the case of pottery, that colouring agents were obtained from the metallic ores. Different chemicals added to them finally led to attribute different shades of colours and glazes to the glass objects. Coloured glass was prepared by mixing silicates of soda, lime and appropriate metallic oxides<ref>Jaggi, O.P. (1977) ''Science and Technology in Ancient India, New Delhi. Vol I'', p.203</ref>. Copper oxide, iron oxide, manganese oxides were generally used to give colours to the glass articles as for pottery. A special type of glass beads of 350 A.D. to 750 A.D. found at Ahicchatra is of gold foil glass. Layers of gold foils were poured in between two glass layers. All these prove that craftsmen in ancient India were highly skillful in the sophisticated technique of using metallic ores and chemicals as pigments in colouring very high temperature melting media like glass.

=== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ===

== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ==

Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient and medieval texts reveal that people had this knowledge as outlined below.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />

Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient and medieval texts reveal that people had this knowledge as outlined below.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />

[[File:Zawar Zinc Retorts.png|thumb|Zawar Zinc Mines in Rajasthan. Production of metallic zinc by Tiryakpatana yantra. ]]

[[File:Zawar Zinc Retorts.png|thumb|Zawar Zinc Mines in Rajasthan. Production of metallic zinc by Tiryakpatana yantra. ]]