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The findings testify to the facts that the people in the remote ages were acquainted with the art of making painted potteries as well as with the preparation and working of metallic copper. Prafulla Chandra Ray was a renowned researcher of chemistry, who set up several chemical industries in Bengal and is regarded as the "Father of Indian Chemistry" in modern times.
The findings testify to the facts that the people in the remote ages were acquainted with the art of making painted potteries as well as with the preparation and working of metallic copper. Prafulla Chandra Ray was a renowned researcher of chemistry, who set up several chemical industries in Bengal and is regarded as the "Father of Indian Chemistry" in modern times.
One must bear in mind that it is not just India, but several cultures, including non-western cultures around the world that have made several interesting innovations in the fields of chemistry and other subjects. However the present matter pertains to progress of Bharat in several areas of shastras and hence the attention is to bring such lesser known events to readers knowledge.
One must bear in mind that it is not just India, but several cultures, including non-western cultures around the world that have made several interesting innovations in the fields of chemistry and other subjects. However the present matter pertains to progress of Bharat in several areas of shastras and hence the attention is to bring such lesser known events to readers' knowledge.
== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==
[[File:First Pottery Images.png|thumb|406.25x406.25px|Images of Pottery. Courtesy: Dr. Michel Danino]]
[[File:First Pottery Images.png|thumb|406.25x406.25px|Images of Pottery. Courtesy: Dr. Michel Danino]]
Chemistry in ancient India, had its origin revealed through the great works of our ancient rishis can be attributed to three major areas<ref name=":1" />
Chemistry in ancient India, had its origin revealed through the great works of our ancient seers can be attributed to three major areas<ref name=":1" />
* intellectual speculation about the nature and composition of matter (Alchemy)
* intellectual speculation about the nature and composition of matter (Alchemy)
* development of practical arts to meet the demand for the necessities of life (Dyes, Fermentation)
* development of practical arts to meet the demand for the necessities of life (Dyes, Fermentation)
Thus the major chemical products that developed gradually over various eras can be summarized as glass, bricks and pottery, paper, soap, ink, dyeing, cosmetics and perfumes, alcoholic beverages, food processing, pharmaceuticals, mining techniques and alloy preparations, gun powder and saltpetre, and oilseeds.
Thus the major chemical products that developed gradually over various eras can be summarized as glass, bricks and pottery, paper, soap, ink, dyeing, cosmetics and perfumes, alcoholic beverages, food processing, pharmaceuticals, mining techniques and alloy preparations, gun powder and saltpetre, and oilseeds.
== Constitution and Properties of Matter ==
== Alchemical Ideas in the Vedas ==
Rigveda mentions the Asvini devatas, the divine physicians, who when invoked gave sight to the blind and made the lame walk, restoring people to good health. The Vedas mention many plants, herbs, minerals and metals as the sources of healing powers, used for treating ailments though their potencies are not described. A Rigveda sukta (1.162) gives an account of the bronze cauldron. Gold was used for ornaments like anklets, rings, etc. Mention of metal vessels, tools and armour, seals made mainly of copper, bronze, affords evidence of the knowledge of metal working.<ref name=":1" /> According to Rigveda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton was practiced during this period. References are found in the Rigveda about the preparation of tanning of leather and hides for use as slings, bead strings, reins and whips.<ref name=":1" />
There are ample references of a number of fermented drinks. Soma, the rasa (juice) is a fermented juice from the stems of soma plant regarded as the Amrita, is said to heal all ailments and bestow immortality. Among fermented liquors, there is a mention of madhu,a drink supplied at feasts, and sura, another drink probably a kind of beer brewed from barley grain. Curds or fermented milk constituted an important item of diet. Clothes were mainly made of wool and the garments were often dyed red, purple and brown; people demonstrated their acquaintance with the art of dyeing with natural vegetable coloring material.<ref name=":1" />
Yajurveda clearly mentions six metals<ref name=":1" /> - Ayas (gold), Hiranya (silver), Loha (copper), Shyama (iron), Sisa (lead), Trapu (tin). Atharvaveda names Harita (yellow) as gold, Rajata (white) as silver and Lohita (red) as copper.
Plants and herbs were worshipped for their healing powers. The Atharvaveda mentions the suktas for the cure of diseases and possession by demons of disease are known as "bhaishajyani,' while those which have for their object the securing of long life and health are known as "ayushyani," a term which later on gave place to '''rasayana''', the Sanskrit equivalent of alchemy.<ref>Ray, P. C. (1903). ''A History of Hindu Chemistry: From the earliest times to the middle of the sixteenth century A. D.'' (2nd ed., Vol. 1). The Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works Limited. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.39319/mode/2up</nowiki></ref> While the term itself does not mean chemistry, a study of history of chemistry through the Vedic, Darshana, Tantric and Ayurvedic textual studies reveals the relationship of alchemy and modern day chemistry to the understanding of Rasayana shastra as variously described in ancient texts. Alchemy in India was variously called [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]], Rasavidya; the word rasa has many meanings, such as essence, taste, sap, juice or semen, but in this context refers to mercury, seen as one of the most important elements.
== Origin and Properties of Matter ==
Chemistry involves the study of fundamental properties of matter and atoms, and their inter-relationships. The Ayurvedic period constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of ancient India relating to the accumulation and development of chemical sciences which at that time was closely associated with medicine. The physical and chemical theories were intricately associated with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|srshti siddhantas]] propounded in the vedic, upanishadic and darshana shastras. Ayurveda was founded on the theories of cosmic evolution in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Darshanas]] most importantly of Samkhya and Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" />
Chemistry involves the study of fundamental properties of matter and atoms, and their inter-relationships. The Ayurvedic period constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of ancient India relating to the accumulation and development of chemical sciences which at that time was closely associated with medicine. The physical and chemical theories were intricately associated with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|srshti siddhantas]] propounded in the vedic, upanishadic and darshana shastras. Ayurveda was founded on the theories of cosmic evolution in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Darshanas]] most importantly of Samkhya and Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" />
* Prasastapada had proposed in his Padarthadharma-sarhgraha that atoms (anu) form - through dyads (dvyanuka) and triads, (tryanuka), gross bodies (`molecules' in modern terminology) and 'this gives rise to different qualities in a substance'.<ref name=":2">''[http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5802/1/1-24.PDF Minerals and Their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India]'' by Prof. A. K. Biswas</ref>
* Prasastapada had proposed in his Padarthadharma-sarhgraha that atoms (anu) form - through dyads (dvyanuka) and triads, (tryanuka), gross bodies (`molecules' in modern terminology) and 'this gives rise to different qualities in a substance'.<ref name=":2">''[http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5802/1/1-24.PDF Minerals and Their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India]'' by Prof. A. K. Biswas</ref>
Thus broadly the origin and composition of matter had the foundations in our ancient texts.
Thus broadly the origin and composition of matter had the foundations in our ancient texts.
== Chemistry in Ancient India ==
In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahäyäna phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasa-ratnäkara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.
== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==
== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==