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Yantra (Samskrit: यन्त्रम्) refers to contrivances or instruments developed using the fundamental knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, agriculture etc., for enabling ease of activities in daily lives. On the other hand, in worship and ritualistic works they are regarded as devices for devotional sadhanas. These are used as tools for mental concentration and meditation. Enormous scientific marvels of modern day mechanical interventions and development of instruments and appliances in the past few centuries, may lead to a misplaced conclusion that sciences have only developed in the recent few centuries.   

Yantra (Samskrit: यन्त्रम्) refers to contrivances or instruments developed using the fundamental knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, agriculture etc., for enabling ease of activities in daily lives. On the other hand, in worship and ritualistic works they are regarded as devices for devotional sadhanas. These are used as tools for mental concentration and meditation. Enormous scientific marvels of modern day mechanical interventions and development of instruments and appliances in the past few centuries, may lead to a misplaced conclusion that sciences have only developed in the recent few centuries.   

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Yantras, in Indian medicinal texts of [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], refer to instruments used in surgery (shalya chiktsa). [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] texts of Ayurveda, mention the term Yantra to describe apparatuses used for preparation of Rasa drugs (rasa-aushadha-nirmana). The construction of yantras is described in the ancient literature with definite measurements and details for each arrangement. As per Rasasastra, metals and minerals needs to undergo specific procedures like shodhana, marana etc., before they could be administered into the body. All of this could be achieved with the help of yantras.<ref>Sen Aparna and S. Thara Lakshmi. ''A Review on the Yantras with special reference to commonly used Yantras in Rasoushadhi Nirmana.'' Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019;10(9):35-38 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.1009257</nowiki></ref> Thus yantras have various meanings based on the context of usage as follows<ref name=":3" />

Yantras, in Indian medicinal texts of [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], refer to instruments used in surgery (shalya chiktsa). [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] texts of Ayurveda, mention the term Yantra to describe apparatuses used for preparation of Rasa drugs (rasa-aushadha-nirmana). The construction of yantras is described in the ancient literature with definite measurements and details for each arrangement. As per Rasasastra, metals and minerals needs to undergo specific procedures like shodhana, marana etc., before they could be administered into the body. All of this could be achieved with the help of yantras.<ref name=":9">Sen Aparna and S. Thara Lakshmi. ''A Review on the Yantras with special reference to commonly used Yantras in Rasoushadhi Nirmana.'' Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019;10(9):35-38 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.1009257</nowiki></ref> Thus yantras have various meanings based on the context of usage as follows<ref name=":3" />

# mechanical '''contrivances''' (machine or instrument) eg., kupa yantra (for drawing water)

# mechanical '''contrivances''' (machine or instrument) eg., kupa yantra (for drawing water)

* In '''Tantra shastra''', Yantra is used to refer to a geometrical pattern, a synthesis of lines and 'beeja aksharas' or 'seed letters'. Tantra technically is a process of relating the unusual patterns (yantra) with uncommon formulae (mantra). Basic to both these patterns and formulae is the belief that the human body is the ground where they operate. Yantras are merely extensions or externalizations of the forces purported as working within the individual; and Mantras are in the nature of  formalisations of the vibrations occurring within. A few largely used yantras  mostly for protection, health and warding off evil include those such as Vishahara yantra for snake bite, Rogahara yantra for curing consumptive ailments, Svarnabhairava yantra used in Alchemy, Kartavirya yantra for recovering lost property etc.<ref>Prof. S. K. Ramachandra Rao. (1979) ''Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology.'' New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann</ref>

* In '''Tantra shastra''', Yantra is used to refer to a geometrical pattern, a synthesis of lines and 'beeja aksharas' or 'seed letters'. Tantra technically is a process of relating the unusual patterns (yantra) with uncommon formulae (mantra). Basic to both these patterns and formulae is the belief that the human body is the ground where they operate. Yantras are merely extensions or externalizations of the forces purported as working within the individual; and Mantras are in the nature of  formalisations of the vibrations occurring within. A few largely used yantras  mostly for protection, health and warding off evil include those such as Vishahara yantra for snake bite, Rogahara yantra for curing consumptive ailments, Svarnabhairava yantra used in Alchemy, Kartavirya yantra for recovering lost property etc.<ref>Prof. S. K. Ramachandra Rao. (1979) ''Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology.'' New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann</ref>

However, the present article pertains to the yantras as mechanical contrivances, instruments and apparatuses with an aim to bring out the scientific aspects in the field of mechanical and physical sciences, the knowledge of which shastras were well developed and widely used in fields such as Agriculture, Mathematics, Warfare, and Ayurveda.  

However, the present article discusses the yantras as mechanical contrivances, instruments and apparatuses with an aim to bring out the scientific aspects in the field of mechanical and physical sciences, the knowledge of which shastras were well developed and widely used in fields such as Agriculture, Mathematics, Warfare, and Ayurveda.  

== Yantras in Ancient Literature ==

== Yantras in Ancient Literature ==

The main yantras of warfare are discussed by Kautilya in the Ayudhagara adhyaya wholly devoted to armoury. However, other mechanical contrivances described by him pertain to construction of forts with restrictive secret passages, movable staircases, controlling animals like elephants, for protecting against unwanted intruders in many situations.   

The main yantras of warfare are discussed by Kautilya in the Ayudhagara adhyaya wholly devoted to armoury. However, other mechanical contrivances described by him pertain to construction of forts with restrictive secret passages, movable staircases, controlling animals like elephants, for protecting against unwanted intruders in many situations.   

In II. 5, he refers to a dugout, ''Bhumigriha,'' and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and withdrawn (''Yantra-yukta-sopana).'' While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for finishing off enemies and unwanted persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple, from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to kill him instantly.  

In II. 5 of Arthashastra, he refers to a dugout, ''Bhumigriha,'' and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and withdrawn (''Yantra-yukta-sopana).'' While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for finishing off enemies and unwanted persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple, from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to kill him instantly.  

 

== Mechanical Contrivances ==

== Mechanical Contrivances ==

=== Qualities of a good Yantra ===

=== Qualities of a good Yantra ===

According to Bhojadeva, the capability of the yantra cannot be decided just by looking at its shape. He describes the merits of good machine as follows.<ref name=":0" />

According to Bhojadeva, the capability of the yantra cannot be decided just by looking at its shape. He describes the merits of good machine as follows.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>यन्त्राणामाकृतिस्तेन निर्णेतुं नैव शक्यते। यथावद्बीजसंयोगः सौश्लिष्ट्यं श्लक्ष्णतापि च ॥४५

 

यन्त्राणामाकृतिस्तेन निर्णेतुं नैव शक्यते। यथावद्बीजसंयोगः सौश्लिष्ट्यं श्लक्ष्णतापि च ॥४५

अलक्षाता निर्वहणं लघुत्वं शब्दहीनता। शब्दे साध्ये तदाधिक्यमशैथिल्यमगाढता ॥४६

अलक्षाता निर्वहणं लघुत्वं शब्दहीनता। शब्दे साध्ये तदाधिक्यमशैथिल्यमगाढता ॥४६

iṣṭakālē’rdhadarśitvaṁ punaḥ samyaktvasaṁvr̥tiḥ| anulbaṇatvaṁ tādrūpyaṁ dārḍhyēm asr̥ṇatā tathā ||48

iṣṭakālē’rdhadarśitvaṁ punaḥ samyaktvasaṁvr̥tiḥ| anulbaṇatvaṁ tādrūpyaṁ dārḍhyēm asr̥ṇatā tathā ||48

cirakālasahatvaṃ ca yantrasyaite guṇaḥ smṛtāḥ|

cirakālasahatvaṃ ca yantrasyaite guṇaḥ smṛtāḥ|</blockquote>

 

# yathāvadbījasaṃyogaḥ - Proper and proportionate utilization of constituent elements.

# yathāvadbījasaṃyogaḥ - Proper and proportionate utilization of constituent elements.

# sauśliṣṭyaṃ - Well-knit construction

# sauśliṣṭyaṃ - Well-knit construction

The Kashyapiya-krshi-sukta (verses 167-69) gives an account of the devices for lifting water from a well and for using it for irrigating the fields. For raising water a place for fixing the machine is to be made on stone-slabs on the brink of the well, and for the outflow of water a small conduit is to be made on a hard surface near the edge of the well. Of the different kinds of machines for raising water the one drawn by bullocks yoked with strong chains is the best, that by the elephant with its trunk is the mediocre, and the one by human labour is the inferior-most. Water on lower levels in steadily raised to the surface of the wells etc. by the revolution of the water-raising machine. Water is then carried to the fields by means of small channels.<ref name=":12">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 417 - 430)</ref>

The Kashyapiya-krshi-sukta (verses 167-69) gives an account of the devices for lifting water from a well and for using it for irrigating the fields. For raising water a place for fixing the machine is to be made on stone-slabs on the brink of the well, and for the outflow of water a small conduit is to be made on a hard surface near the edge of the well. Of the different kinds of machines for raising water the one drawn by bullocks yoked with strong chains is the best, that by the elephant with its trunk is the mediocre, and the one by human labour is the inferior-most. Water on lower levels in steadily raised to the surface of the wells etc. by the revolution of the water-raising machine. Water is then carried to the fields by means of small channels.<ref name=":12">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 417 - 430)</ref>

=== Yantras for Warfare ===

=== Yantras for Warfare ===

Yantras for actual warfare are in general touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-maneuvers for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defense-erections.

Yantras for actual warfare are in general touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-maneuvers for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defense-erections.

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhagara, 11.18,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras. Kautilya divides the yantras into stationary and mobile - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" />

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhagara, book 2, adhyaya 18,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras. Kautilya divides the yantras into immovable and movable - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>सर्वतोभद्र-जामदग्न्य-बहुमुख-विश्वासघाति-संघाटी-यानक-पर्जन्यक-बाहु-ऊर्ध्व-बाह्व्-अर्ध-बाहूनि स्थिर-यन्त्राणि ।। ०२.१८.०५ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>sarvatobhadra-jāmadagnya-bahumukha-viśvāsaghāti-saṃghāṭī-yānaka-parjanyaka-bāhu-ūrdhva-bāhv-ardha-bāhūni sthita-yantrāṇi || 02.18.05 || (Arth. 2.18.5)<ref name=":8">Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AE Adhikarana 2])</ref></blockquote>

 

==== Sthira Yantras ====

==== Sthira Yantras ====

'''Sarvatobhadra''' : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called Siddhabhumirika-yantra and scatters small stones.

'''Sarvatobhadra''' : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called Siddhabhumirika-yantra and scatters small stones.

'''Bahumukha''' : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather covered and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

'''Bahumukha''' : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather covered and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

'''Vishasaghati''' : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

'''Vishvasaghati''' : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

'''Sanghati''' means "tied together". It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

'''Sanghati''' means "tied together". It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

'''Parjanyaka''' is an Udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.

'''Parjanyaka''' is an Udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.

'''Bahus''' are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press to death a person between them ; this appears to be an instrument of torture. '''Urdhvabahu''' is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death. '''Ardhabahu''' is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.

'''Bahus''' are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press to death a person between them ; this appears to be an instrument of torture. '''Urdhvabahu''' is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death. '''Ardhabahu''' is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.<blockquote>पाञ्चालिक-देवदण्ड-सूकरिका-मुसल-यष्टि-हस्तिवारक-तालवृन्त-मुद्गर-गदा-स्पृक्तला-कुद्दाल-आस्फाटिम-उत्पाटिम-उद्घाटिम-शतघ्नि-त्रिशूल-चक्राणि चल-यन्त्राणि ।। ०२.१८.०६ ।।

 

==== Chala Yantras ====

==== Chala Yantras ====

'''Panchalika''' - Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.

'''Pánchálika''' - Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.

'''Devadandas''' are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name Pratitaroca.

'''Devadanda''' are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name Pratitaroca.

'''Sukarika''' is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, apparently, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-scaler from getting a foothold.

'''súkarika''' is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, apparently, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-scaler from getting a foothold.

'''Musala and Yashti''' are well-known; '''Hastivaraka''' is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, '''Hastiparigha''', for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

'''Musala and Yashti''' are well-known; '''hastiváraka''' is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, '''Hastiparigha''', for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

A '''Talavrinta''' mentioned is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. It was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India, that Indians drive the enemy off by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven, may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

A '''tálavrinta''' is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. It was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India, that Indians drive the enemy off by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven, may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

After '''Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala''', a picked missile, and '''Kuddala''', are mentioned in the following:—

After '''Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala''', a picked missile, and '''kuddála''', are mentioned. '''ásphátima''' has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones. '''udhghátima''' is a machine which demolishes, walls with the iron bars fitted to it, it is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things. The '''trisúla and chakra''', are the well-known trident and discus. '''Sataghni''', the centicide, is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

'''Asphotima''' has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones.

Ratha or chariot was an important piece of military equipment mentioned from the Vedic texts. It generally had two wheels (chakra), each having a rim (nemi), felly (pradhi), nave (nabhya) and spokes (ara), connected by a non-revolving axle (aksha), the end of which (aani) fit into the nave holes (kha). Solid wheels were also used. The Sulbasutra of Apastamba gives the dimensions to construct a chariot.<ref name=":7">Ray, P and Sen, S. N. (1986) eds., ''The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol VI Science and Technology'' Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture (pp. 208-210)</ref>

'''Udghatima''' is a machine which demolishes, walls with the iron bars fitted to it, it is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things.

Ancient Indians were incredibly skilled in civil engineering, showcasing their prowess through remarkable feats of architecture and urban planning.  

And before the '''Trisula and Cakra''', which are well-known, there occurs the '''Sataghni''', the centicide, which is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

# City planning - As seen from Mohenjodaro and Harappan excavations, there were advanced extensive water drainage systems, well laid out planned streets, and urban facilities. They were regarded as the world's pioneers in engineering and city construction as shown by their use of building materials, and construction of roads, drains etc. Arterial streets, road alignments, well-built houses with bricks having more than one floor, provision of sanitary amenities in houses, paved baths, underground sewer pipes are all indicative of the civil engineering skills of the people. Advanced community living is portrayed by two remarkable structures, viz., the Great Bath situated in the citadel mound at Mohenjo-daro and the Great Granary at Harappa.<ref name=":7" />

# Hydraulic structures - Advanced water supply and drainage system was the hallmark of the Harappan civilization's Great Bath. Use of vertical and underground sewer pipes, pulley wheels for drawing water from the wells, swimming pools, and use of paved baths and public drainage system is well evidenced in Harappan city. The step tanks in various cities of India such as Hampi in Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan served as vital water sources and communal gathering spaces, harnessing the groundwater resources. The advanced knowledge of hydraulic engineering enabled them to harness the power of water for agricultural and domestic purposes.<ref name=":7" /> The importance of the hydraulic structures<ref name=":6" /> in the Mauryan period can be judged on the basis of the punishments or fines imposed on the offenders. As mentioned in the Arthashastra, “when a person breaks the dam of a tank full of water, he shall be drowned in the very tank; of a tank without water, he shall be punished with the highest amercement; and of a tank which is in ruins owing to neglect, he shall be punished with the middle-most amercement”.

# Road network - The construction of extensive road networks facilitated trade and communication across ancient India. Notable examples include the Grand Trunk Road, commissioned during the Mauryan Empire, which connected major cities and regions, promoting economic prosperity and cultural exchange.

# Architectural Innovations such as the rock-cut cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora, the towering temples of Khajuraho and Hampi, and the intricately carved stupas of Sanchi, are a testament to the unparalleled craftsmanship and knowledge of the ancient artisans. The Buddhist Stupas and Viharas depicted their engineering skills. Temple architecture stands testimony for the mathematical and constructional abilities of the ancient artisans.<ref name=":7" />

 

In Brihatkatha, the context where the description of the 'yantra' occurs is the longing of the pregnant Vasavadatta; in the Kashmirian version of Somadeva there is only a line saying that her dohada (longing) was fulfilled by manifold contrivances, yantras, etc., arranged by the Minister Yaugandharayana. But in Budhasvamin's version, Vasavadatta yearned to see the whole world from above in an aerial vehicle (Sloka 190); Rumanvan, the commander-in-chief, at once ordered carpenters to manufacture a flying yantra (sloka 196). The carpenters say that they know only four kinds of yantras, made respectively with water, stone, mud and twigs; that it is the Yavanas who know the Akasa-yantras, and that they, for their part, have not even laid eyes on them.<ref name=":1" />

 

It is said that Maharishi Bharadwaja has written a book called “Yantra Sarvasva”. In that book, Chapter 40 titled “Vymanika Shastra or Science of Aeronautics” describes the design, construction and applications of various aircrafts. This book gives the clear classification of vimanas and explains in detail about the design and the materials used in the construction of vimanas. In the year 1952, G.R.Josyer discovered the ancient manuscript of this text written by Pandit Subbaraya Shastry. In the year 1959 Hindi translation of the text was first published, and thenpeople started knowing that such an amazing technology existed during our ancient era. Critics have alluded to various findings about the authenticity of the ancient texts and its origin mentioned above. However, Samarangana sutradhara of Bhojadeva which mentions the use of aircraft in ancient era lends support to the theories of vaimanika shastra.<ref>K. R. Shruthi (2018) [http://hdl.handle.net/10603/226469 Aviation Science And Aircraft As Reflected In Vedic And Ancient Texts] (Chapter 1)</ref>

== Yantras in Pleasure and Entertainment ==

== Yantras in Pleasure and Entertainment ==

The yantras we shall now deal with are accessories of pleasure and entertainment, and more properly come under household fittings and' architectural engineering. Some of them=are for the reduction of human labour, some for sport and merriment,—toys and gadgets of-miscellaneous kinds for entertainment. "  

The yantras under this heading include accessories of pleasure and entertainment, and more properly under household fittings and architectural engineering. They include

 

* those yantras for reduction of human labour (fans, water showers, cool water sprays etc)

* parks, tree and fountains

* for sport and merriment  

* toys and gadgets of miscellaneous kinds for entertainment  

 

 

 

 

Yantras are blunt instruments used in surgical procedures and the removal of foreign substances lodged in different parts of the body. Nowadays, it is also used in diagnosing diseases. There are 101 types, according to Acharya Sushruta,<ref name=":10">Siddaya Aradhyamath et al, ''[https://ijrap.net/admin/php/uploads/2860_pdf.pdf The conceptual study on Yantra: A Review]'' in Int. J. Res. Ayurveda Pharm. 13 (6), 2022</ref> which have been subdivided into five subcategories.

We may begin'with Somadeva Suri, an encyclopaedic Jain writer," and.Tiis long.religious poem, the ''Yaiastilaka Campu,23'' written in South India in 949 A.D. In the first part of thework, Somadeva describes the hero resorting to the cool ''yantra-dhdrd-griha'' to spend the hot hours of the summer days. This park, fitted with mechanical" fountains, is appropriately called by the commentator ''Krilrima-megha-mandira,'' the artificial cloud-pavilion. It is erected in the dense garden in an area provided with many canals. There is the stream for watef sports in the midst of which" is a sandbank raised like a pavilion, provided with a water-bed, ''Sdtila'-tulika;'' nearby'are numerous vessels containing-fragrant water jtat'one end'here is an ''yantra-jala-dhdrd,'' a contrivance' p'roducingVari'arlf-s ficial-waterfall; the water is taken through" and thrown out'of the "mouth's of! figures of elephants, tigers, lions,'snakes,'etc: ' ' " > ''~"'1''

Rasasastra deals with metallic, mineral and poisonous drugs. These drugs are pharmaceutically processed and rendered fit for internal administration. For the various processing of rasa uparasadi dhatus and for the preparation of medicines, specific apparatuses called ‘Yantras’ are needed. Metals and minerals are required to undergo certain processes like shodhana, jarana, marana, satwapatana etc before they could be administered into the body and all these processes could only be achieved with the help of yantras. In Rasasastra, ashta samskara of parade is reckoned of great importance in enhancing the potency of parada both from the therapeutical and alchemical point of view. Specific yantras are needed for each of these processes.<ref name=":9" />

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Shastras]]

[[Category:Shastras]]

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