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Yantra Shastra (यन्त्रशास्त्रम्) (view source)
Revision as of 00:34, 17 December 2024
, 00:34, 17 December 2024added content
In II. 5, he refers to a dugout, ''Bhumigriha,'' and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and withdrawn (''Yantra-yukta-sopana).'' While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for finishing off enemies and unwanted persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple, from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to kill him instantly.
In II. 5, he refers to a dugout, ''Bhumigriha,'' and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and withdrawn (''Yantra-yukta-sopana).'' While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for finishing off enemies and unwanted persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple, from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to kill him instantly.
It mentions a manually operated cooling device referred to as “Variyantra” (revolving water spray for cooling the air). The Variyantra was similar to the water cooler. According to Megasthenes (an ancient Greek historian, who visited the court of king Chandragupta Maurya around 300 BCE), the Variyantra was used by the wealthier sections of the society for cooling the air. The Arthashastra also gives an extensive account of hydraulic structures built for irrigation and other purposes during the period of the Mauryan Empire.<ref name=":6">Pushpendra, K. S. Pankaj, Dey. Sharad, K. Jain. and Pradeep Majumdar. ''[https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4691/2020/ Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India.]'' Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 4691–4707, 2020 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4691-2020</nowiki></ref>
== Mechanical Contrivances ==
== Mechanical Contrivances ==
=== Qualities of a good Yantra ===
=== Qualities of a good Yantra ===
According to Bhojadeva, the capability of the yantra cannot be decided just by looking at its shape. He describes the merits of good machine as follows.<ref name=":0" />
According to Bhojadeva, the capability of the yantra cannot be decided just by looking at its shape. He describes the merits of good machine as follows.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>यन्त्राणामाकृतिस्तेन निर्णेतुं नैव शक्यते। यथावद्बीजसंयोगः सौश्लिष्ट्यं श्लक्ष्णतापि च ॥४५
यन्त्राणामाकृतिस्तेन निर्णेतुं नैव शक्यते। यथावद्बीजसंयोगः सौश्लिष्ट्यं श्लक्ष्णतापि च ॥४५
अलक्षाता निर्वहणं लघुत्वं शब्दहीनता। शब्दे साध्ये तदाधिक्यमशैथिल्यमगाढता ॥४६
अलक्षाता निर्वहणं लघुत्वं शब्दहीनता। शब्दे साध्ये तदाधिक्यमशैथिल्यमगाढता ॥४६
iṣṭakālē’rdhadarśitvaṁ punaḥ samyaktvasaṁvr̥tiḥ| anulbaṇatvaṁ tādrūpyaṁ dārḍhyēm asr̥ṇatā tathā ||48
iṣṭakālē’rdhadarśitvaṁ punaḥ samyaktvasaṁvr̥tiḥ| anulbaṇatvaṁ tādrūpyaṁ dārḍhyēm asr̥ṇatā tathā ||48
cirakālasahatvaṃ ca yantrasyaite guṇaḥ smṛtāḥ|
cirakālasahatvaṃ ca yantrasyaite guṇaḥ smṛtāḥ|</blockquote>
# yathāvadbījasaṃyogaḥ - Proper and proportionate utilization of constituent elements.
# yathāvadbījasaṃyogaḥ - Proper and proportionate utilization of constituent elements.
# sauśliṣṭyaṃ - Well-knit construction
# sauśliṣṭyaṃ - Well-knit construction
In Sanskrit the word Araghatta has been used in the ancient texts to describe the Persian Wheel. The ‘ara-ghatta’ comes from the combination of the words ‘ara’ meaning spoke and ‘ghatta’ meaning pot. There is evidence to argue that this system of lifting water from open wells was probably invented in India of the past. It finds mention in the Panchatantra (3rd Century BCE) and the Rajatarangini (12th century CE) as the ‘cakka-vattakka’ or the ‘ghati yantra’.<ref>[https://journalsofindia.com/irrigation-techniques-of-ancient-and-medieval-india/#:~:text=Content,-Irrigation%20systems%20of&text=The%20Harappan%20irrigation%20system%20was,bring%20running%20water%20into%20homes. Irrigation techniques of Ancient and Medieval India] </ref>
In Sanskrit the word Araghatta has been used in the ancient texts to describe the Persian Wheel. The ‘ara-ghatta’ comes from the combination of the words ‘ara’ meaning spoke and ‘ghatta’ meaning pot. There is evidence to argue that this system of lifting water from open wells was probably invented in India of the past. It finds mention in the Panchatantra (3rd Century BCE) and the Rajatarangini (12th century CE) as the ‘cakka-vattakka’ or the ‘ghati yantra’.<ref>[https://journalsofindia.com/irrigation-techniques-of-ancient-and-medieval-india/#:~:text=Content,-Irrigation%20systems%20of&text=The%20Harappan%20irrigation%20system%20was,bring%20running%20water%20into%20homes. Irrigation techniques of Ancient and Medieval India] </ref>
The waterlifting devices were also used in the Mesopotamian civilization, and the Saqia (or water wheel) was widely used for lift irrigation using oxen for irrigating the summer crops (Mays, 2008). The “asma-cakra” and “Ghatayantra” were widely in use during the Vedic and Mauryan periods. The Varshamaan was widely used in the Mauryan Empire for rainfall measurements. It may be noted that we do not have any reference to “rainfall measurement” in other contemporary civilizations in the Old World. Interestingly, the Rigveda (verses X, 93.12, and X, 101.7) has a mention of “asma-cakra” (a wheel made of stones). Water was raised with help of the wheel in a pail using a leather strap. There is also a mention of “Ghatayantra” or “Udghatana” (a drum-shaped wheel) around which a pair of endless ropes with ghata (i.e., earthen pots) tied at equal distances.<ref name=":6" />
=== Yantras for Warfare ===
=== Yantras for Warfare ===
# City planning - As seen from Mohenjodaro and Harappan excavations, there were advanced extensive water drainage systems, well laid out planned streets, and urban facilities. They were regarded as the world's pioneers in city construction.
# City planning - As seen from Mohenjodaro and Harappan excavations, there were advanced extensive water drainage systems, well laid out planned streets, and urban facilities. They were regarded as the world's pioneers in city construction.
# Water systems - Advanced water supply and drainage system was the hallmark of the Harappan civilization's Great Bath. Use of vertical and underground sewer pipes, pulley wheels for drawing water from the wells, swimming pools, and use of paved baths and public drainage system is well evidenced in Harappan city. The step tanks in various cities of India such as Hampi in Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan served as vital water sources and communal gathering spaces, harnessing the groundwater resources. The advanced knowledge of hydraulic engineering enabled them to harness the power of water for agricultural and domestic purposes.
# Hydraulic structures - Advanced water supply and drainage system was the hallmark of the Harappan civilization's Great Bath. Use of vertical and underground sewer pipes, pulley wheels for drawing water from the wells, swimming pools, and use of paved baths and public drainage system is well evidenced in Harappan city. The step tanks in various cities of India such as Hampi in Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan served as vital water sources and communal gathering spaces, harnessing the groundwater resources. The advanced knowledge of hydraulic engineering enabled them to harness the power of water for agricultural and domestic purposes. The importance of the hydraulic structures<ref name=":6" /> in the Mauryan period can be judged on the basis of the punishments or fines imposed on the offenders. As mentioned in the Arthashastra, “when a person breaks the dam of a tank full of water, he shall be drowned in the very tank; of a tank without water, he shall be punished with the highest amercement; and of a tank which is in ruins owing to neglect, he shall be punished with the middle-most amercement”.
# Road network - The construction of extensive road networks facilitated trade and communication across ancient India. Notable examples include the Grand Trunk Road, commissioned during the Mauryan Empire, which connected major cities and regions, promoting economic prosperity and cultural exchange.
# Road network - The construction of extensive road networks facilitated trade and communication across ancient India. Notable examples include the Grand Trunk Road, commissioned during the Mauryan Empire, which connected major cities and regions, promoting economic prosperity and cultural exchange.
# Architectural Innovations such as the rock-cut cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora, the towering temples of Khajuraho and Hampi, and the intricately carved stupas of Sanchi, are a testament to the unparalleled craftsmanship and knowledge of the ancient artisans.
# Architectural Innovations such as the rock-cut cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora, the towering temples of Khajuraho and Hampi, and the intricately carved stupas of Sanchi, are a testament to the unparalleled craftsmanship and knowledge of the ancient artisans.
=== Akasa-yantras ===
In Brihatkatha, the context where the description of the 'yantra' occurs is the longing of the pregnant Vasavadatta; in the Kashmirian version of Somadeva there is only a line saying that her dohada (longing) was fulfilled by manifold contrivances, yantras, etc., arranged by the Minister Yaugandharayana. But in Budhasvamin's version, Vasavadatta yearned to see the whole world from above in an aerial vehicle (Sloka 190); Rumanvan, the commander-in-chief, at once ordered carpenters to manufacture a flying yantra (sloka 196). The carpenters say that they know only four kinds of yantras, made respectively with water, stone, mud and twigs; that it is the Yavanas who know the Akasa-yantras, and that they, for their part, have not even laid eyes on them.<ref name=":1" />
== Yantras in Pleasure and Entertainment ==
== Yantras in Pleasure and Entertainment ==