Changes

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Yantras, in Indian medicinal texts of [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], refer to instruments used in surgery (shalya chiktsa). [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] texts of Ayurveda, mention the term Yantra to describe apparatuses used for preparation of Rasa drugs (rasa-aushadha-nirmana). The construction of yantras is described in the ancient literature with definite measurements and details for each arrangement. As per Rasasastra, metals and minerals needs to undergo specific procedures like shodhana, marana etc., before they could be administered into the body. All of this could be achieved with the help of yantras.<ref>Sen Aparna and S. Thara Lakshmi. ''A Review on the Yantras with special reference to commonly used Yantras in Rasoushadhi Nirmana.'' Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019;10(9):35-38 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.1009257</nowiki></ref>

Yantras, in Indian medicinal texts of [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], refer to instruments used in surgery (shalya chiktsa). [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] texts of Ayurveda, mention the term Yantra to describe apparatuses used for preparation of Rasa drugs (rasa-aushadha-nirmana). The construction of yantras is described in the ancient literature with definite measurements and details for each arrangement. As per Rasasastra, metals and minerals needs to undergo specific procedures like shodhana, marana etc., before they could be administered into the body. All of this could be achieved with the help of yantras.<ref>Sen Aparna and S. Thara Lakshmi. ''A Review on the Yantras with special reference to commonly used Yantras in Rasoushadhi Nirmana.'' Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019;10(9):35-38 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.1009257</nowiki></ref> Thus yantras have various meanings based on the context of usage as follows<ref name=":3" />

 

== व्युत्पत्तिः॥Etymology ==

== व्युत्पत्तिः॥Etymology ==

Dr. V.R. Raghavan in his article “Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in Ancient India” describes that yantra is so called because it controls and directs according to a plan, the motions of things that act each according to its own nature.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, Yantra usually means '''any appliance or apparatus, contrivance, or device, engine or machine, implement or instrument''' in general. Depending on the context, it may specifically denote an object of any or the above type in different areas of Indian Sciences in a broad sense.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>

Dr. V.R. Raghavan in his article “Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in Ancient India” describes that yantra is so called because it controls and directs according to a plan, the motions of things that act each according to its own nature.<ref name=":0">Shruti. K. R., and Dr. Rajani Jairam. ''Mechanical Contrivances and Daru Vimanas described in Samarangana Sutradhara of Bhojadeva,'' IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 20, Issue 12, Ver. V (Dec. 2015) PP 16-20

</ref> Thus, Yantra usually means '''any appliance or apparatus, contrivance, or device, engine or machine, implement or instrument''' in general. Depending on the context, it may specifically denote an object of any or the above type in different areas of Indian Sciences in a broad sense.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>

* [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]] makes use of the word 'tantra' in the sense of 'body' and 'yantra' in the sense of its machinery. In traditional [[Rasayana Shastra (रसायनशास्त्रम्)|Rasayana shastra]], different types of apparatus used in the processing of medicines (aushadhis) and [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|mercury]] and other preparations (rasas) were called yantras. Rasatarangini mentions<ref>Shastri K, editor. ''Rasatarangini of Sadananda Sharma,'' 8th Taranga, 8th ed. Varanasi: Motilal Banarasidas; 2012. p. 41- 71</ref><ref>Sekhar Reddy, P. ''A textbook of Rasashastra''. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia (pp.35)</ref><blockquote>रसोपरसलोहाद्यः मारणद्यर्थसिद्धये । यन्त्र्यतेऽनेन यस्मात्तु तस्माद् यन्त्रं प्रकीर्तितम्॥ rasōparasalōhādyaḥ māraṇadyarthasiddhayē | yantryatē’nēna yasmāttu tasmād yantraṁ prakīrtitam|| (Rasa. Tara. 4.1)</blockquote>Yantras are apparatuses used for the shodhana, marana, swedana etc purposes of rasa, uparasa, lohadis.

* [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|'''Ayurveda''']] makes use of the word 'tantra' in the sense of 'body' and 'yantra' in the sense of its machinery. In traditional [[Rasayana Shastra (रसायनशास्त्रम्)|Rasayana shastra]], different types of apparatus used in the processing of medicines (aushadhis) and [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|mercury]] and other preparations (rasas) were called yantras. Rasatarangini mentions<ref>Shastri K, editor. ''Rasatarangini of Sadananda Sharma,'' 8th Taranga, 8th ed. Varanasi: Motilal Banarasidas; 2012. p. 41- 71</ref><ref>Sekhar Reddy, P. ''A textbook of Rasashastra''. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia (pp.35)</ref><blockquote>रसोपरसलोहाद्यः मारणद्यर्थसिद्धये । यन्त्र्यतेऽनेन यस्मात्तु तस्माद् यन्त्रं प्रकीर्तितम्॥ rasōparasalōhādyaḥ māraṇadyarthasiddhayē | yantryatē’nēna yasmāttu tasmād yantraṁ prakīrtitam|| (Rasa. Tara. 4.1)</blockquote>Yantras are apparatuses used for the shodhana, marana, swedana etc purposes of rasa, uparasa, lohadis.

* In '''Ganita-Jyotisha''' (mathematical astronomy) the [[Astronomical instruments (खगोलीय उपकरण)|astronomical instruments]] have been called as yantras.  

* In '''Ganita-Jyotisha''' (mathematical astronomy) the [[Astronomical instruments (खगोलीय उपकरण)|astronomical instruments]] have been called as yantras.  

* In '''Tantra shastra''', Yantra is used to refer to a geometrical pattern, a synthesis of lines and 'beeja aksharas' or 'seed letters'. Tantra technically is a process of relating the unusual patterns (yantra) with uncommon formulae (mantra). Basic to both these patterns and formulae is the belief that the human body is the ground where they operate. Yantras are merely extensions or externalizations of the forces purported as working within the individual; and Mantras are in the nature of  formalisations of the vibrations occurring within. A few largely used yantras  mostly for protection, health and warding off evil include those such as Vishahara yantra for snake bite, Rogahara yantra for curing consumptive ailments, Svarnabhairava yantra used in Alchemy, Kartavirya yantra for recovering lost property etc.<ref>Prof. S. K. Ramachandra Rao. (1979) ''Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology.'' New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann</ref>

* In '''Tantra shastra''', Yantra is used to refer to a geometrical pattern, a synthesis of lines and 'beeja aksharas' or 'seed letters'. Tantra technically is a process of relating the unusual patterns (yantra) with uncommon formulae (mantra). Basic to both these patterns and formulae is the belief that the human body is the ground where they operate. Yantras are merely extensions or externalizations of the forces purported as working within the individual; and Mantras are in the nature of  formalisations of the vibrations occurring within. A few largely used yantras  mostly for protection, health and warding off evil include those such as Vishahara yantra for snake bite, Rogahara yantra for curing consumptive ailments, Svarnabhairava yantra used in Alchemy, Kartavirya yantra for recovering lost property etc.<ref>Prof. S. K. Ramachandra Rao. (1979) ''Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology.'' New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann</ref>

However, the present article pertains to the yantras as mechanical contrivances, instruments and apparatuses with an aim to bring out the scientific aspects in the field of mechanical and physical sciences, the knowledge of which shastras were well developed and widely used in fields such as Agriculture, Mathematics, Warfare, and Ayurveda.  

However, the present article pertains to the yantras as mechanical contrivances, instruments and apparatuses with an aim to bring out the scientific aspects in the field of mechanical and physical sciences, the knowledge of which shastras were well developed and widely used in fields such as Agriculture, Mathematics, Warfare, and Ayurveda.  

== Yantras in Ancient Literature ==

== Yantras in Ancient Literature ==

The main yantras of warfare are discussed by Kautilya in the Ayudhagara adhyaya wholly devoted to armoury. However, other mechanical contrivances described by him pertain to construction of forts with restrictive secret passages, movable staircases, controlling animals like elephants, for protecting against unwanted intruders in many situations.   

The main yantras of warfare are discussed by Kautilya in the Ayudhagara adhyaya wholly devoted to armoury. However, other mechanical contrivances described by him pertain to construction of forts with restrictive secret passages, movable staircases, controlling animals like elephants, for protecting against unwanted intruders in many situations.   

In II. 5, he refers to a dugout, ''Bhumigriha,'' and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and withdrawn ( ''Yantra-yukta-sopdna).'' While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for finishing off enemies and unwanted persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple, from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to kill him instantly.  

In II. 5, he refers to a dugout, ''Bhumigriha,'' and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and withdrawn (''Yantra-yukta-sopana).'' While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for finishing off enemies and unwanted persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple, from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to kill him instantly.

 

 

According to Bhojadeva in his seminal work Samarangana Sutradhara, Bija or Constituent elements of yantra are four in number.<blockquote>तस्य बीजं चतुर्धा स्यात् क्षितिरापोऽनलोऽनिलः। आश्रयत्वेन चैतेषां विजयदप्युपयुज्यते ॥५ (Sama. Sutr. 31.5)<ref name=":5">Samarangana Sutradhara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%A7 Adhyaya 31])</ref></blockquote>They are earth (क्षितिः), water (आपः), fire (अनलः) and air (अनिलः) with ether (विजयः) being the medium of action.

== Yantras for Water-lifting ==

=== Qualities of a good Yantra ===

The Samaranganasutradhara (I,pp. 178-79, verses 109-14) describes four water-machines (vaariyantra) to bring water down (pata) to raise it first and then to bring it down {ucchrayasamapata), to bring it down and then to raise it (patasamocchraya), and to raise it (ucchraya). But all this was for the recreation of the rich class. It is highly improbable that they were commonly used for irrigation.

According to Bhojadeva, the capability of the yantra cannot be decided just by looking at its shape. He describes the merits of good machine as follows.<ref name=":0" />

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhdgara, 11.1S,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

# yathābhīṣṭārthakāritvaṃ layatālānugāmitā - The securing of the rhythmic quality in motion – particularly in entertainment wares.

# anulbaṇatvaṁ - Verisimilitude in the case of bodies intended to represent birds, animals.

 

 

*'''अन्तरितवाह्यंम् ॥ Antarita vahyam''' - Where the principal of action or motor mechanism hidden or concealed from public view with the machine to be carried by another.

 

*'''दूरतःवाह्यम् ॥ Duruta vahyam''' - The one which is really obscure (distant proximate) but carriagable from the place from which the machine acts.

Kautilya in Arthashastra classifies yantras used in warfare as Sthira (unmovable) and Chala (movable) yantras both of which are discussed in the succeeding sections.

 

Bhattasvamin quotes a shloka on yantras in general as of three kinds, Vyadhita, Bhrdmita and Bharayukta: the first acts by being pressed, the second by rotation and the third by its sheer weight.

Kautilya divides the yantras into stationary and mobile - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" />  

Samarangana Sutradhara by Bhojadeva is an eighty three chapter treatise which deals with town planning, house architecture, temple architecture, various sculptural subjects, canons of paintings, devotes a big chapter called Yantravidhanam (यन्त्रविधानम्) on the art of mechanical contrivances, the yantras. Chapter thirty one of this book specializes in mechanical contrivances and yantras, including those with construction of vimanas or aerial cars.<ref name=":0" />

=== Sthira Yantras ===

=== Yantras for Water-lifting ===

Sarvatobhadra : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called Siddhabhumirika-yantra and scatters small stones.

The Samaranganasutradhara (shlokas 110-14<ref name=":5" />) describes four water-machines (vaariyantra) with fourfold movement in the vari-yantra or a fountain: (a) a downward flow from an overhead tank for which a Pata-yantra or waterfall-machine, is to be used; (b) Samanadika is for the release of water at a higher level from tanks placed at that level; (c) Patasamocchraya is a contrivance using bored columns for letting down water from a height, and then taking it up through columns placed aslant; and (d) the last, Ucchraya, in which water from a well or in a canal on the ground is sent up by a device. It is highly improbable that they were commonly used for irrigation.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":12" />

Jamadagniya : Bhattasvamin explains it as a big Sara-yantra or mechanical arrow-thrower. It is placed behind a wall and it shoots arrows through crevices in the wall. But the name signifies a fire-arm.

The Kashyapiya-krshi-sukta (verses 167-69) gives an account of the devices for lifting water from a well and for using it for irrigating the fields. For raising water a place for fixing the machine is to be made on stone-slabs on the brink of the well, and for the outflow of water a small conduit is to be made on a hard surface near the edge of the well. Of the different kinds of machines for raising water the one drawn by bullocks yoked with strong chains is the best, that by the elephant with its trunk is the mediocre, and the one by human labour is the inferior-most. Water on lower levels in steadily raised to the surface of the wells etc. by the revolution of the water-raising machine. Water is then carried to the fields by means of small channels.<ref name=":12">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 417 - 430)</ref>

Bahumukha : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather covered and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

Yantras for actual warfare are in general touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-maneuvers for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defense-erections.

Visvasaghati : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhagara, 11.18,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras. Kautilya divides the yantras into stationary and mobile - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" /> 

'''Sarvatobhadra''' : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called Siddhabhumirika-yantra and scatters small stones.

Sanghati means " tied together ". It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

'''Jamadagniya''' : Bhattasvamin explains it as a big Sara-yantra or mechanical arrow-thrower. It is placed behind a wall and it shoots arrows through crevices in the wall. But the name signifies a fire-arm.

Yanaka or Yanika is a yantra moved on wheels; it discharges batons.

'''Bahumukha''' : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather covered and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

Parjanyaka is an Udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.

'''Vishasaghati''' : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

Bahus are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press to death a person between them ; this appears to bean instrument of torture.

'''Sanghati''' means "tied together". It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

Urdhvabdhu is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death.

'''Yanaka or Yanika''' is a yantra moved on wheels; it discharges batons.

Ardhabahu is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.

'''Parjanyaka''' is an Udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.

'''Bahus''' are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press to death a person between them ; this appears to be an instrument of torture. '''Urdhvabahu''' is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death. '''Ardhabahu''' is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.

Panchalika. Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.

Devadandas are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name also, Pratitaroca.

'''Panchalika''' - Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.

Sukarika is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, on this view, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-sealer from getting a foothold.

'''Devadandas''' are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name Pratitaroca.

Musala and Yashti-are well-known; Hastivaraka is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, Hastiparigha, for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

'''Sukarika''' is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, apparently, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-scaler from getting a foothold.

A Talavrinta mentioned is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. We may suggest that here was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India; that Indians drive the enemy off 'by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven," may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

'''Musala and Yashti''' are well-known; '''Hastivaraka''' is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, '''Hastiparigha''', for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

After Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala, a picked missile, and Kuddala, are mentioned in the following:—

A '''Talavrinta''' mentioned is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. It was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India, that Indians drive the enemy off by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven, may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

Asphotima has four feet, is covered.by hide, has a projectile and throws stones.

After '''Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala''', a picked missile, and '''Kuddala''', are mentioned in the following:—

Udghdtima is a machine which demolishes,walls with the.iron bars fitted to it.

'''Asphotima''' has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones.

Utpatima is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things.

'''Udghatima''' is a machine which demolishes, walls with the iron bars fitted to it, it is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things.

And before the Trisula and Cakra, which are known, there occurs the Sataghni, the centicide, which is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

And before the '''Trisula and Cakra''', which are well-known, there occurs the '''Sataghni''', the centicide, which is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

== Yantras in Pleasure and Entertainment ==

== Yantras in Pleasure and Entertainment ==