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# What would “global justice” look like?

# What would “global justice” look like?

The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.  

The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.  

Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.  

=== Right Knowledge ===

=== Right Knowledge ===

The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />

The nature of any system is largely determined by its methodology. Both Indian and western systems employ the objective and subjective methods in their approach to Truth. The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or Shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or Anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or Shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or Anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>  

All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>  

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:   

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share common features, that can be called the vedantic core:   

* '''Concept of [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]]''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.

* '''Concept of [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]]''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.

* '''Concept of [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" /> All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.

* '''Concept of [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" /> All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''Parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.   

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''Parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.<ref name=":5" />  

=== Differences Among Vedanta Sampradayas ===

=== Differences Among Vedanta Sampradayas ===

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various Sampradayas or sub-schools of the Vedanta Darshana. The critique of various Acharyas about Vedanta philosophy may broadly be grouped under eight headings: 

 

# The nature of Consciousness

# The Nirguna Brahman (Attributeless/unqualified Absolute)

# The doctrine of Avidya

# Sadhana and Mukti

 

Each sampradaya differed from others in having specific viewpoints about one or more of the above concepts.  

====Bhedābheda====

====Bhedābheda====

====Shuddhādvaita====

====Shuddhādvaita====

Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahmana. This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "Pushtimarga" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport (līlā) of Krishna, who is ''Sat-Chit-Ananda'' or, "eternal bliss mind". According to this school Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankaracharya, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] only. Brahman is independent reality and is identified with Shrikrishna. His essence is Sat-chit- ananda. Jiva and jagat are the real manifestations of Brahman and the relationship is that of whole and parts. Vallabha differs from Shankaracharya in that he proposes the Maya or Avidya is the power of Brahman through which he manifests the world but it is neither an illusion nor an error. It is real manifestation, ''Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'', where the universe is a natural emanation from Brahman which does not involve a notion or change (parinama) and is not an unreal appearance (vivarta). The individual soul ([[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or jivatma) and Brahman are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. Jiva is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref name=":3" />  

Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahmana. This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "Pushtimarga." Pusti means the divine grace which dawns through devotion and is the cause of liberation.<ref name=":3" />

 

Brahman is the independent reality and is identified with Shrikrishna. The world is said to be the sport (līlā) of Krishna, whose essence is ''Sat-Chit-Ananda'' or, "existence knowledge and bliss". According to this school Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankaracharya, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] only. [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] and jagat are the real manifestations of Brahman and the relationship is that of whole and parts.  

 

Vallabhacharya differs from Shankaracharya in that he proposes the Maya or Avidya is the power of Brahman through which he manifests the world but it is neither an illusion nor an error. It is real manifestation, ''Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'', where the universe is a natural emanation from Brahman which does not involve a notion or change (parinama) and is not an unreal appearance (vivarta). The individual soul ([[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or jivatma) and Brahman are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. Jiva is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda; being clouded by the force of ignorance (‘avidya’) it is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref name=":3" />  

====Advaita Vedānta====

====Advaita Vedānta====

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam

# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam

Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref> Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">Das, A. C. (1952). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics]. ''Philosophy East and West'', ''2''(2), 144–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304</nowiki></ref> it is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes. , no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("Avidya"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

According to Advaita, all six sources of knowledge-  Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison), Shabda (verbal testimony), and Anupalabdhi (non-apprehension). Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref> Advaita Vedanta expounds the qualities or attributes of Brahman as follows.<ref name="acdas">Das, A. C. (1952). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics]. ''Philosophy East and West'', ''2''(2), 144–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304</nowiki></ref>

 

# It is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes.

# Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and beyond.  

# ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists, both material and instrumental cause of this creation.  

# It can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.  

# The knowledge of Brahman that [[Shruti (श्रुतिः)|shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.

# Brahman is not outside, as a separate, dual entity, but is within each person.

# Brahman is beyond subject-object relation, both of which are transcended in higher states of consciousness.

# Brahman is Sat-chit-ananda (Tait. Upan. 2.1.1) or existence, knowledge and bliss. Thus, Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature.

 

The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self ([[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or ''[[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification termed Avidya or [[Maya (माया)|Maya]]. When the veil of Avidya is removed, the Atman is realized as identical with Brahman. This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and "sarvam khavidam brahma" all is ''Brahman''. Summarizing the major tenets of Advaita Vedanta <ref name=":3" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/63552/4/Unit-4.pdf</ref>

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, the knowledge of Brahman that shruti provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref> In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature.  

# The purpose of philosophy is to help [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] (the human being) achieve Moksha purusartha i.e., to free himself from the bondage (Samsara) of  Karma leading to the cycle of births and death. 

# The bondage, according to Advaita, is the result of ‘Avidya’, or ignorance, a universal human problem. It  emphasizes that the self (atman) is never bound, and is eternally liberated.  

# Avidya exists because it leads to a notion of apparent separation (bheda) where none exist. 

# Avidya or ignorance can only be overcome by acquiring ‘vidya’ or 'jnana', that is the knowledge. It is acquired by knowing at the deep psychological levels that individual distinctions are false, especially the distinction between the knower and the known. 

# The awareness or Sakshi is defined as the real self of the Jiva, which is the real knowledge, free from subject-object distinctions, and is pure consciousness (chit, anubhava)

# The same real self, is not different from the ultimate universal principle, the Brahman. If the ‘Brahman’ was conceived as an object of self-awareness, then it would involve a subject-object relation, which is at the base of “avidya”, that is ignorance. 

# Truth is that knowledge which is never contradicted or set aside as false and is not affected (badha). By the above criteria, “Brahman” is the only ultimate reality, since it is not affected by ignorance, and it is one thing not sublatable, since sublation depends on consciousness.

# Pure consciousness is experienced during deep sleep. Since we awake refreshed, it is inferred that the true consciousness is also ultimate bliss.  

====Vishishtadvaita====

====Vishishtadvaita====

Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is asserted to have attributes (Saguna brahman), including the individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to liberation. Māyā is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta" />

Visishtadvaita was propounded by Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) who says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is determinate and asserted to have attributes (Saguna or savisesha). All knowledge involves distinctions and there is no undifferentiated pure consciousness, identity is always qualified by difference. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to liberation. Māyā is seen as the creative power of God.

 

According to Visishtadvaita, there are three sources of knowledge- Shabda (verbal testimony), Pratyaksha (perception) and Anumana (inference). All the three sources should have character, in order to establish a proof. Some important tenets of Visishtadvaita<ref name=":10" />

 

====Dvaita====

====Dvaita====