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Vedanta (Samskrit: वेदांतम्) or Uttara Mimamsa is one of the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|six Darshanas]] or schools of philosophy that have originated from the spiritual experience of the sages of ancient India. Subsequently, these philosophical concepts were elaborated into systems of thought and explained in terms of reason and logic.  {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qa6TBN_xxkI&feature=youtu.be

Vedanta (Samskrit: वेदांतम्) or Uttara Mimamsa is one of the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|six Darshana shastras]] or schools of philosophy that have originated from the spiritual experience of the sages of ancient India. Subsequently, these philosophical concepts were elaborated into systems of thought and explained in terms of reason and logic.  {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qa6TBN_xxkI&feature=youtu.be

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Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  

Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  

The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

The Self to be realized is usually confused with the [[Ahamkara (अहंकारम्)|Ahamkara]] or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita siddhanta calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

All the Indian philosophical systems exhibit a twofold unity of outlook. There is first the “spiritual unity” in their outlook. This is brought out clearly by the common philosophical ideal of [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]], which is a spiritual experience, not an intellectual apprehension or an occult vision or a physical ecstasy. The second is the moral unity in outlook. All the systems, though they give differing accounts of moksha, are at one in holding that it cannot be attained by mere intellectual study.<ref name=":2" />

All the Indian philosophical systems exhibit a twofold unity of outlook. There is first the “spiritual unity” in their outlook. This is brought out clearly by the common philosophical ideal of [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]], which is a spiritual experience, not an intellectual apprehension or an occult vision or a physical ecstasy. The second is the moral unity in outlook. All the systems, though they give differing accounts of moksha, are at one in holding that it cannot be attained by mere intellectual study.<ref name=":2" />

: सर्व्वस्यापि वस्तुविचारोद्देशपूर्व्वकत्वात् प्रतिज्ञातं वेदान्तं नामतो निर्दिशति वेदान्त इति ।<ref name=":1" />

: सर्व्वस्यापि वस्तुविचारोद्देशपूर्व्वकत्वात् प्रतिज्ञातं वेदान्तं नामतो निर्दिशति वेदान्त इति ।<ref name=":1" />

It is an attempt to determine the nature of the Ultimate Reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to clearly understand the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.

It is an attempt to determine the nature of the ultimate reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to clearly understand the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.

=== Nature of Texts ===

=== Nature of Texts ===

The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />

The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or [[pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or Shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or Anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

== Schools of Vedanta ==

== Schools of Vedanta ==

As discussed in the previous section, Badarayana's Brahmasutras attempted to set forth the unanimous teachings of the Upanishads and defend them against possible and actual objections. His sutras being brief, were open to different interpretations. Various commentaries thus came to be written to elaborate the  doctrines of each Vedantic thought in their own light. Each of them tried to justify its position as the only one consistent with the revealed texts (Shrutis) and the sutras. The author of each of the chief commentaries (bhashya) became the founder of a particular school of Vedanta.<ref name=":3" /> We have various schools of Vedanta advocated by Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and later day proponents such as Vallabhacharya, Nimbarka, and Chaitanya Prabhu. The schools are named after the relation they see between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]].

As discussed in the previous section, Badarayana's Brahmasutras attempted to set forth the unanimous teachings of the Upanishads and defend them against possible and actual objections. His sutras being brief, were open to different interpretations. Various commentaries thus came to be written to elaborate the  doctrines of each Vedantic thought in their own light. Each of them tried to justify its position as the only one consistent with the revealed texts (Shrutis) and the sutras. The author of each of the chief commentaries (bhashya) became the founder of a particular school of Vedanta.<ref name=":3" /> We have various schools of Vedanta advocated by Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and later day proponents such as Vallabhacharya, Nimbarka, and Chaitanya Prabhu. The schools are named after the relation they see between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] and according to <ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6">Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad. (1978) ''Studies in the History of Indian Philosophy''. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. p.267</ref>

* According to Advaita Vedanta of Sri Sankaracharya, there is no difference.

 

* According to Dvaita of Sri Madhavacharya, the jivatman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.

# '''Advaita Vedanta''' (Absolute Non-dualism) of Sri Adi Sankaracharya, there is no difference between jivatman and Brahman.

* According to Vishishtadvaita of Sri Ramanujacharya, the jivatman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.

# '''Dvaita''' (Absolute Dualism) of Sri Madhavacharya, the jivatman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.

* According to Shuddhadvaita of Sri Vallabhacharya, the jivatman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jivatman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.

# '''Vishishtadvaita''' (Qualified Non-dualism) of Sri Ramanujacharya, the jivatman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.

* According to Dvaitadvaita (Bhedaabheda) of Sri Nimbarkacharya, ''Brahman'' is both different (''bheda'') and not different (''abheda'') from creation and the individual jivatman.

# '''Shuddhadvaita''' (Pure Non-dualism) of Sri Vallabhacharya, the jivatman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jivatman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.

# '''Dvaitadvaita or Bhedabheda''' (Non-dualism in Dualism) admitted by scholars like Bhaskara and Nimbarka<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6" />, Bhartrprapancha<ref>Hiriyanna, M. (1952) ''The Quest After Perfection''. Mysore: Kavyalaya Publishers. p.75</ref> ''Brahman'' is both different (''bheda'') and not different (''abheda'') from Jagat and the individual jivatman. Bhedabheda siddhanta upholds that the ultimate reality, as taught in the Upanishads, will be neither a bare unity not a mere plurality but a vital synthesis of both. This philosophy was upheld by scholars such as Bhaskara, Yadava, Nimbarka and Chaitanya belonging to different areas of India with slight differences in their postulates.

 

Other than the Advaita school (and Vijnanabhikshu's Avibhaga-lakshanadvaita), every school of Vedanta recognizes the necessity of devotion or Bhakti in addition to knowledge as the means to the attainment of moksha or freedom from bondage.

Sivananda gives the following explanation:<blockquote>Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.</blockquote>

Sivananda gives the following explanation:<blockquote>Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.</blockquote>

=== Common Tenets of All Schools of Vedanta ===

=== Common Tenets of Darshanas and Vedanta ===

All the systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>  

All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>  

 

Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:  

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:

* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahmasutra (ब्रह्मसूत्र)|Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavad Gita]]''.

* '''Concept of Brahman''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.

* Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self. Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.

* '''Concept of Atman''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" /> All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.

* Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth.

* '''Concept of Karma''' - Actions or karma help prepare the mind (Chittashuddhi) for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards are renounced. Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self. Karma is intricately related to rewards of action such as Papa (demerits) and Punya (merits) which are adrstha or unseen effects.

* Liberation is deliverance from this cycle leading to Moksha.

* '''Concept of Dharma''' -  Atman can be realized by one who does practice self-control, desirelessness, and concentration of mind. Moral purity is the indispensable pre-requisite of knowledge of atman. Karma is not excluded from moral life.

* '''Concept of Punarjanma''' - Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra due to attachment to results or fruits of actions.  Death and rebirth, is cyclical and results from attachment to karmaphala and Nishkama Karma leads one to escape this Punarjama cycle. Punarjanma is again a fundamental concept widely accepted and discussed in many ancient Indian texts.

* '''Concept of Moksha''' - Liberation is deliverance from the punarjanma cycle leads to Moksha. It is regarded as the highest aim of human life.  

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:—

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:

* Realization of the distinction between ‘person’ and ‘thing’.

* Realization of the distinction between ‘person’ and ‘thing’.

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref name="IEPBheda" group="web">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''Parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman. 

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta. 

# as associated with (that is, manifested as) the subject or knower (or Consciousness limited by the mind), the [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] (pramatr) - Pramatr-chaitanyam

# as associated with the object (Vishaya) - Vishaya-chaitanyam

Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference" refers to a siddhanta which admits that individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman. This siddhanta goes back to vedic times with thinkers like Asmarathya, Audulomin and Kasakrsna offering a dualistic cum monistic interpretation of the Upanishadic passages.<ref name=":7">Agarwal, M. M. and Potter, Karl H. (2013) eds., ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol XV, Bhedabheda and Dvaitadvaita Systems''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p 21-49</ref> According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''Bhedabheda'' point of view, the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.<ref name=":8">https://iep.utm.edu/bhedabheda-vedanta/#SH1e</ref> All Bhedābheda schools share the understanding of the relation between individual self (''jīvātman'') and Brahman as one of part and whole; the doctrine that the phenomenal world is a real transformation of Brahman (''Pariṇāmavāda''); and the doctrine that liberation can only be attained by means of a combination of knowledge and ritual action (''Jñānakarmasamuccayavāda''), not by knowledge alone. All Bhedābhedavādins maintain the reality of the phenomenal world and the multiplicity of individual selves.<ref name=":8" /> [[Bhakti (भक्तिः)|Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school such as Nimbarka and Sri Chaitanya. While Bhaskara insists on the essential unity of the jiva and Brahman and Yadavaprakasa treats Ishvara and jiva as the two essential aspects of the absolute, Nimbarka refers to the jiva as a distinct entity that derives its being from Brahman and depends on it.

# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam

Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref>

'''Aupadhika Bhedabheda:''' Bhaskara, accepts the three realities: Brahman or Ishvara, jiva and jagat (world). Brahman is the cause of the world, its creator, supporter, and destroyer. Brahman is both the material and efficient cause of the world and is known only from scriptural authority. Bhaskara strongly held that the world is a transformation (parinama) of one absolute abstract unity or Brahman (Brahmaparinamavada) who is real, original and natural form into many forms by means of limiting conditions (upadhi) as the principle of self differentiation at the time of creation. Hence, the difference though real is adventitious or aupadhika as there is difference and non-difference due to limiting conditions. During liberation and dissolution the self and the world are completely identical with Brahman. He equates Brahman with Vishnu, Narayana, and Vaasudeva.<ref name=":7" />

'''Svabhavika-bhedabheda:''' Nimbarka, Nimbaditya or Niyamananda a Telugu Brahmana, revived the philosophy of earlier bhedabhedavadins such as Ashmarathya, Bhartrprapancha, and Yadavaprakasa along with his amendments and modifications. Also called Sanakasampradaya of Vaishnavism, it is greatly indebted to Ramanujacharya. Notably Nimbarka refers to the Shri and Brahma sampradayas of Ramanujacharya and Madhavacharya respectively.<ref name=":3" /> Nimbarka does not regard Brahman as purely formless and distinction-less as Bhaskara does. Bhaskara's Brahman is nirvisesha (closer to Advaita siddhanta), a pure unity or identity, but Nimbarka's Brahman is savisesha, always having internal natural differences, hence the school is called Svabhavika-bhedabheda. Jiva-jagat are never absolutely identical with Brahman (as in Advaita vedanta) and always retain their own individuality and separateness even during liberation and dissolution. Nimbarka regarded that the grace of Krishna generates devotion.<ref name=":7" /> This school is also referred to as Dvaitadvaita also.

The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different interpretations of the [[Upanishad]]s and the [[Brahma Sutra]]s arose. There are three,{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}} four,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-200}} five<ref name="Washington" /> or six{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{refn|group=note|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}} which are prominent:

* [[Bhedabheda]], as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> or even the 4th century{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}

** Svabhavikabhedabheda or [[Dvaitādvaita]], founded by [[Nimbarka]]<ref name="Washington" /> in the 13th century

** [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE)

* [[Vishishtadvaita]], also a subschool of bhedabheda, founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE)

Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in [[India]].

'''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda:''' Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference.'' The tradition of Achintya-bhedabheda is also commonly known as Gaudiya Vaishnavism, common in West Bengal elaborated by Baladeva. It is described as Achintya or inconceivable because the identity in difference is essentially indescribable and unthinkable due to the inconceivable power of Brahman or Shrikrishna.  The teachings of Chaitanya are based mainly on the Bhagavata. Concept of Achintya is accepted to reconcile the apparent contradictions in the nature of Brahman. Jivas are innumerable and remain distinct even in liberation. They emanate from Brahman like rays from the sun and are absolutely dependent on Him. Bhakti is the sole means of liberation.<ref name=":3" />

===Bhedabheda===

====Shuddhādvaita====

[[Bhedabheda]] (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda"/> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahmana. This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "Pushtimarga" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind". According to this school Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankaracharya, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] only. Brahman is independent reality and is identified with Shrikrishna. His essence is Sat-chit- ananda. Jiva and jagat are the real manifestations of Brahman and the relationship is that of whole and parts. Vallabha differs from Shankaracharya in that he proposes the Maya or Avidya is the power of Brahman through which he manifests the world but it is neither an illusion nor an error. It is real manifestation, ''Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'', where the universe is a natural emanation from Brahman which does not involve a notion or change (parinama) and is not an unreal appearance (vivarta). The individual soul ([[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or jivatma) and Brahman are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. Jiva is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref name=":3" />  

According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}

# as associated with (that is, manifested as) the subject or knower (or Consciousness limited by the mind), the [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] (pramatr) - Pramatr-chaitanyam

 

# as associated with the object (Vishaya) - Vishaya-chaitanyam

# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam

[[Dvaitādvaita]] was propounded by [[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (13th century), based upon [[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]], which was taught by [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]]. According to this school, the ''jīvātman'' is at once the same and yet different from Brahman.  The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as [[Krishna]].<ref name="Vedanta"/>

 

[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple Proof Corpus (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of [[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2), Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>Brahmavād Saṅgraha, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref> 

Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref> Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">Das, A. C. (1952). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics]. ''Philosophy East and West'', ''2''(2), 144–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304</nowiki></ref> it is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes. , no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'. It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref> In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature.

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

===Vishishtadvaita===

====Vishishtadvaita====

[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta"/>{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}

[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta" />{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}

===Dvaita===

====Dvaita====

[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.

[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta"/>

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta" />

 

 

 

 

 

  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

#Jada-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between insentient and the soul

#Jada-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between insentient and the soul

#Mitha-jada-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two insentients

#Mitha-jada-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two insentients

== Discussion ==

== Discussion ==