Changes

{{ToBeEdited}}

{{ToBeEdited}}

Vedanta (Samskrit: वेदांतम्) or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of the six darshanika schools of Sanatana Dharma.  Primarily the word Vedanta stood for [[Upanishads (उपनिषदाः)|Upanishads]]; afterwords, its scope widened to include all thoughts developed out of the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदाः)|Upanishads]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN PHILOSOPHY|last=Satischandra Chatterjee|first=Dhirendramohan Dutta|publisher=RUPA PUBLICATIONS INDIA PVT. LIMITED|year=2007|isbn=978-81-291-1195-1|location=|pages=317|via=}}</ref>. Vedanta, its denotation as understood and accepted by its major schools, refers to various philosophical traditions based on the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy, namely the Principal Upanishads, the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}

Vedanta (Samskrit: वेदांतम्) or Uttara Mimamsa is one of the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|six Darshanas]] or schools of philosophy that have originated from the spiritual experience of the sages of ancient India. Subsequently, these philosophical concepts were elaborated into systems of thought and explained in terms of reason and logic.  {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qa6TBN_xxkI&feature=youtu.be

 

Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as Yoga and [[Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse traditions within it.<ref name="hajimenakamura3">Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 3</ref><ref name="gavinfloodaith238">Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page 238</ref> There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} of which [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Dvaita]] and [[Bhedabheda]] are the best known.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}

  In this article, the term Godhead is used in the same spirit as "Bhagwaan” or "Parabrahman", intrinsic aspect of God analogous to waterness in water.

{{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qa6TBN_xxkI&feature=youtu.be

|alignment=right

|alignment=right

|dimensions=500x248

|dimensions=500x248

|description=Vedanta - Darsana - The Path to Transcedence and Self-realization

|description=Vedanta - Darsana - The Path to Transcedence and Self-realization

}}

}}

The Vedanta school has been historically referred to by various names, the early names being the Upanishadic ones (''Aupanisada''), the doctrine of the end of the Vedas (''Vedanta-vada''), the doctrine of [[Brahman]] (''Brahma-vada''), and the doctrine that Brahman is the cause (''Brahma-karana-vada'').{{Sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}}

One of the living systems of Indian philosophy, the Vedanta, has become widely studied in recent centuries, as to some Western intellectuals it became a solace and a solution to the vexed problems of the world. They consider that it offers the central principles of the universal religion, which, swayed the thought and life of Indians through ages of time. Primarily the word Vedanta stood for [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]; later its scope widened to include all thoughts developed out of the Upanishads<ref name=":0">Satischandra Chatterjee, Dheerendramohan Dutta (1948) An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.  pp.&nbsp;395, 396</ref>.

In this article, the term Godhead is used in the same spirit as "Bhagvaan” or "Parabrahman", intrinsic aspect of God analogous to waterness in water.

 

Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.

 

The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita siddhanta calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

 

All the Indian philosophical systems exhibit a twofold unity of outlook. There is first the “spiritual unity” in their outlook. This is brought out clearly by the common philosophical ideal of [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]], which is a spiritual experience, not an intellectual apprehension or an occult vision or a physical ecstasy. The second is the moral unity in outlook. All the systems, though they give differing accounts of moksha, are at one in holding that it cannot be attained by mere intellectual study.<ref name=":2" />

 

 

The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.  

#The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', a part of the [[Mahabharata]], is known as ''Sadhana prasthana'' (practical text), and the ''Smriti prasthāna'' (the starting point of remembered tradition)

The Upanishads were many in number and developed in the different Vedic schools at different times and places (the names of up to 112 [[Upanishads]] have been recorded)<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1|last=Dasgupta|first=Surendranath|publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2015|isbn=978-81-208-0412-8|location=|pages=28|via=}}</ref>. All major commentators have considered twelve to thirteen of these texts as the principle [[Upanishad]]s.  

The problems discussed and solutions offered in the [[Upanishads]] presented differences despite a unity of general outlook. The indefiniteness of the teaching of the [[Upanishads]] led to a necessity for its systematization. The systematization, in all likelihood, was effected in more than one way; but the only attempt that has survived is represented by the Sutras of ''[[Badarayana]] [[Vyasa]]'' popularly known as ''[[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]]'' or ''[[Brahma Sutras|Brahma Sutra]]''<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|last=Hiriyanna|first=M.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2008|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|location=Delhi|pages=151, 152|via=}}</ref>.

The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’'' meaning वेदानाम्  अन्तः।  or ''<nowiki/>'end of Vedas''' and indeed, many of these texts are found at the end of each of [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]]. In Shabdakalpadhruma<ref name=":1">See word [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80 Vedanta on Page 4/501]</ref>, Hemachandra mentions Vedanta to be Upanishads.  

All major Vedantic teachers, like [[Adi Shankara|Shankaracharya]], [[Rāmānuja|Ramanujacharya]], and [[Madhvacharya]], have composed extensive commentaries not only on the [[Upanishads]] and [[Brahma Sutras]], but also on the [[Bhagavad Gita]]. While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and [[Upanishad]]ic thought, the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' has played a strong role in Vedantic thought.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pasricha|first=Ashu|title=Encyclopaedia of Eminent Thinkers: The Political Thought of C. Rajagopalachari, Volume 15|year=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788180694950|pages=95}}</ref>

: Vedanta signifies the Upanishads, the means of right knowledge (with respect to Self) and the Sharirika sutras and other (works) helpful in understanding them, as per Vedantasara (text) composed by Sadananda Yogindra Acharya.

==History==

At the end or culmination of the Vedas, in the sense that they embody the highest philosophical knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads, are also called Uttara Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called '''Uttara Mimamsa''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa which deals with the previous part of the Vedas, namely the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]]. Thus, both Purva and Uttara Mimamsa are directly based on the Vedas. Purva Mimasa refers to the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry' in the Brahmana granthas, is also called Karma Mimamsa, or is simply called as Mimamsa. It deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic mantras in Samhita and Brahmanas, while Uttara Mimamsa, also called as Vedanta or Jnana Mimamsa, deals with the philosophical knowledge of [[Upanishads]] or the ''Jnana-kanda'' of the Vedas.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments."{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx–xxxi}} The schools trace their antiquity far back into the [[Vedas]] and the early seers. [[Advaita Vedanta]] and [[Vishishtadvaita|Vishishtadvaita Vedanta]] existed prior to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] and [[Ramanuja]] respectively but found their most influential expounder in them.<ref>The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidhā anupapatti. By John A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass 1990</ref>

== Aims and Characteristics of Vedanta ==

The philosophy of Vedanta, like all other systems of thought, is an attempt to clearly understand and offer an explanation of all things (vastu vichara) in the world as it appears to us in our knowledge.  

Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the [[Brahma Sutras]] (400–450 BC{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}) almost nothing is known.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Very little also is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara (first half of the 8th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada]] (7th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}

: सर्व्वस्यापि वस्तुविचारोद्देशपूर्व्वकत्वात् प्रतिज्ञातं वेदान्तं नामतो निर्दिशति वेदान्त इति ।<ref name=":1" />

=== Vedanta before the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' ===

It is an attempt to determine the nature of the Ultimate Reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to clearly understand the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.

Not much remains of the teachings of Vedanta from this period.  

Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give some insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}

The ''Vedanta'' includes the class of literature under the heading [[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthana Trayi]], namely the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], [[Brahmasutra (ब्रह्मसूत्र)|Brahmasutras]] or Sharirakasutras and [[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavadgita]]. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas summarized in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:

# The ''[[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhita]],'' ''[[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]]'' and the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' collectively form the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]. The ''[[Upanishads]]'' discuss the philosophical aspects of the ''[[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]'' and with respect to their being at end of the Brahmana and Aranyaka texts they are termed Vedanta.

# In respect to the their time of study, the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' were studied the last, during the last two ashramas in a man's life namely the [[Vanaprasthashrama (वानप्रस्थाश्रमः)|Vanaprastha]] and [[Sannyasashrama (सन्न्यासाश्रमः)|Sannyasa]].

# The ''[[Upanishads]]'' mark the culmination of Vedic thought.<ref name=":0" />

[[Badarayana]] was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him:{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}{{quote|From the way in which Bādarāyana cites the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four chapters must have been the last attempt, most probably the best.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}}}

A major portion of the Vedanta literature is composed in ‘Sutra’ format, or aphorisms, for example - अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा। A ‘[[Sutras (सूत्राणि)|Sutra]]’ is a short statement/phrase/rule/letters which is capable of being remembered, in the oral tradition. The brevity of the Sutra, while making it easy to remember, provides the commentator opportunity to comment on that and draw his own interpretation. The commentaries are called as “[[Bhashya (भाष्यम्)|Bhashya]]”, and the commentators ‘Bhashyakara’. Many a time, the commentator composed his own shlokas, for easy memorization, and provided his own commentary on what he has composed.

=== [[Badarayana]] [[Vyasa]]'s [[Brahma Sutras|''Brahma Sutras'']] ===

=== Goal of Life ===

All activity in the universe, of man and of every other living being, if analyzed, will be found to have for its object one of these three:- ''to be (to exist), to know, and to be happy''. The goal of all thinking beings is

In the [[Brahma Sutras]], also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}}{{refn|group=note|The Vedānta-sūtra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-sūtra, (2) Śārīraka, (3) Vyāsa-sūtra, (4) Bādarāyaṇa-sūtra, (5) Uttara-mīmāṁsā and (6) Vedānta-darśana.<ref name = SDG>{{Citation | first = S.D. | last = Goswāmi | author-link = Satsvarupa dāsa Goswāmi | title =Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself |  publisher = [https://books.google.com/books?id=ockZAAAAMAAJ] | year = 1976 | pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9 }}</ref>}}[[Badarayana|Badarayan]] [[Vyasa]] summarized the teachings of the [[upanishads]] <ref>{{Cite book|title=A Critical Summary of Indian Philosophy|last=Sharma|first=Chandramohan|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2009|isbn=978-81-208-0365-7|location=Delhi|pages=239, 240, 241|via=}}</ref>. The identity of [[Badarayana]] is not well established. Traditions often ascribe the authorship of the Brahma Sutras to [[Vyasa]], who has variously been called [[Badarayana]].

The Brahma Sutras have traditionally been ascribed to Badarayana,{{refn|group=note|Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE}} and antiquity quoted as 200 CE{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}}. However, some scholars understand it as a group of [[Sutra|sutras]] composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} that were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that."{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}

# to exist ''always'' and ''everywhere'' 

# to be happy ''always'' and ''under all conditions''  

The [[Brahma Sutras]] has been written in four chapters, each divided into four quarters or sections.<ref name=":2" /> The cryptic aphorisms of the [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutras]] are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own commentary.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26-27}} As a consequence, the divergence of views, originally prevalent in the form of seemingly diverse verses of the [[Upanishads]], re-asserted themselves and have continued in more or less the same form even after the composition of the [[sutra]].<ref name=":2" />

Thus the innermost aim of man is to exist indefinitely, to have knowledge and happiness, absolutely unlimited by any restrictions of time or space. The seed to realize this aim of man is found in the instinctive abhorrence of death / suffering (opposite of existence), ignorance (opposite of knowing) and misery (the opposite of happiness). The three characteristics of existence, knowledge and happiness are thus essential to the very nature of conscious life and the attainment of a perfect state of these three characteristics is a supreme state beyond any kind of known limitation.<ref name=":4">Aiyar, Krishnaswami R. (Reprint 1978) ''Outlines of Vedanta'' Bombay: Chetana Pvt. Ltd. pp. 1-7</ref>

===Vedanta between the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' and [[Adi Shankara]]===

The vagueness of the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching is particularly in reference to the relation of [[Brahman]] to the individual soul ([[Jivatva|Jiva]]) on the one hand, and to the physical universe on the other. Statements about their identity in the principal [[Upanishads]] are many and prominent and those distinguishing the two expressly are not altogether wanting. The first problem to solve for any one attempting to systematize the teaching of the Upanishads is accordingly to harmonize these two sets of statements. The most obvious way of doing so is to attach equal value to both classes of statements and theorize that the soul and the world are both identical with and different from [[Brahman]]. That was the view held by '''Bhartriprapancha''', who flourished before [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], and commented on the [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]] and the [[Upanishads]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|last=Hiriyanna|first=M.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2008|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|location=Delhi|pages=152, 23|via=}}</ref>

=== Person, Thing and The Supreme Entity ===

[[Srishti (सृष्टिः)|Sristhi]] or Creation is found to consist of entities which are either ''persons'' or ''things'' which have the characteristics of ''nama (name)'' and ''rupa (form).'' The words ‘organic’ and ‘inorganic’, ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’, ‘subject and object’, are often used instead of 'persons' and 'things'.  However, here we allude to the terms person and things.  Both the person and things have three inseparable characteristics:-  

'''Bhartriprapancha''' maintained that the self and the physical universe, though finite and imperfect, are real and the two are not altogether different from the Brahman. Bhartriprapancha was criticised by [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] in his treatises. Scholars see Bhartriprapancha as one of the earlier philosophers in the line of philosophers who teach the tenet of [[Bhedabheda]]..<ref name=":3" />

'''- A person: He is, he knows, he enjoys.'''  

There was a long line of teachers of Vedanta before Shanka, the last among them being [[Mandan Mishra]], who regarded [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimamsa]] and Vedanta as forming a single system and advocated the combination of action and knowledge known as ''Karma-Jnana-samuchchaya-vada''. According to them, the [[Sutra|sutras]], beginning with the first [[sutra]] of [[Jaimini]] and ending with the last [[sutra]] of [[Badarayana|Badarayan]] [[Vyasa]], form one compact [[shastra]]<ref name=":1" />. The strict compartmentalization of Vedanta as different from the other orthodox Schools was the contribution of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]].

'''- A thing: It is, it is known, it is enjoyed.'''

In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group="web">[http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'']</ref> The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa-dāsa.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Combined together,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} at least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}}}

The common characteristic therefore of a person and of a thing is that he or it is (i.e., he/it exists). The Vedanta teaches us the existence of a third entity which transcends and comprehends all creation and whose characteristics therefore are '''that it is, it knows and is known, enjoys and is enjoyed'''. Such a third entity is a Supreme Entity and has specific set of attributes, chiefly of transcendence. The highest goal of human life is the realization in actual experience of that Supreme Entity. This realization can be made possible only in successive stages of practical training. Note that the word ‘God’, in ordinary parlance, connotes a ‘personality’, ever so Supreme and Transcendent, while the word ‘Brahman’ signifies that Transcendent Supreme Being who is strictly impersonal.<ref name=":4" />

===Gaudapada and Shankara===

=== Necessity for Right Understanding ===

{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}

Vedantic teachings, which were treasured as the highest and sublimest of truths reserved to be imparted only to the qualified and the tested, are in the recent centuries thrown broadcast so that they have become the common property of the worst sinner and the noblest saint. According to our Sastras the only standpoint from which we can really solve and realize the relationship between the subject or perceiver and the object or perceived is when we transcend both. No amount of reasoning can enable us to arrive at such a stage, for all reasoning assumes more or less the stable existence of the reasoning perceiver and of the perceived as well.<ref name=":5">Aiyar, Krishnaswami R. (Reprint 1978) ''Outlines of Vedanta'' Bombay: Chetana Pvt. Ltd. </ref>

Gaudapada wrote or compiled{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}} the {{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}, also known as the {{IAST|Gauḍapāda Kārikā}} and as the {{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}.{{refn|group=note|Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}}} Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doctrines that [[Yogacara#Representation-only|ultimate reality is pure consciousness (''vijñapti-mātra'')]]{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177-178}}

Thus, Vedanta teaches us to understand the concept of 'reality or stable existence' unravelling the relationship between the person and thing. Philosophers have either denied the existence of the person, thing or relationship between them.

Adi Shankara (788–820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work, and is considered to be the founder of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} It was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's ''mayavada''{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|name=mayavada|The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See <ref group=web>[http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same Swami B.V. Giri, Gaudya Touchstone, ''Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same?'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html harekrishnatemple.com, ''Mayavada Philosophy'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/gss/sadhu/sampradayas/mayavada/mayavada.htm harekrsna.com, ''The Mayavada School'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada Gaura Gopala Dasa, ''The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada'']</ref>}} into Badarayana's ''Brahma Sutras'', "and give it a ''locus classicus''",{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}} against the realistic strain of the ''Brahma Sutras''.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "The ''Brahmasutras'' themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow difficult he himself found the task of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his conception, is proved by the artificiality and ''parenthetical irrelevance of his comments'' in many places, where he seeks to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and their natural drift of arguments and dialectic [...] he was fighting with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of realistic commentaries."{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}}} His interpretation, including works ascribed to him, has become the normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004}}{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}

- Some believe that the perceiver is a constant persistent individuality (Atman) and the universe is an everchanging restless mass of phenomena cognized by the perceiver as the objects of his perception, thus objects have no independent existence without the perceiver (Jagat-shunyavadins).  

Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} Shankara "was the person who synthesized the ''Advaita-vāda'' which had previously existed before him".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} He was an unequalled commentator,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} due to whose efforts and contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}}

- Another set of philosophers assume the permanent existence of the perceived universe and seek to analyze the perceiver. The perceiver is not a constant individuality and has no independent existence without the perceived. Just like the water in the river is always flowing and is therefore impermanent and ever-changing, so also the Atman is only a notional entity - a mere void - an everchanging succession of perceptions of phenomena (Atma-shunyavadin).  

Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important role in the rise of ''bhakti'', such as [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE), [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}} and [[Vishishtadvaita]] founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE).

- A third set of philosophers (Sankhyavadins) realize there is essential difference and incompatibility of the perceiver and the perceived. The perceiver is conscious, unchanging and unchangeable in essence. The perceived is unconscious and ever-changing. All sensation is the result of contact between these two. All pain and misery is the result of this contact whether it follows immediately or after a short-lived appearance of pleasure. Once we realize that the perceiver is not and cannot be in any way related to the perceived, we are free from pain and to that end must all activities be directed. This denial of relationship between the perceiver and the perceived, this insistence on their absolute distinctness, is the basis of the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] school of philosophy.<ref name=":5" />

Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.  

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century,

{{quote|...&nbsp;certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}{{refn|group=note|The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}}}}}}

Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} especially [[Vijnanabhiksu]], a [[Bhedabheda]] Vedantin.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} [[Neo-Vedanta]] too was inspired by these thinkers.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}

The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />

==Vedanta philosophy==

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or [[pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

===Basic questions===

== Schools of Vedanta ==

The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}

As discussed in the previous section, Badarayana's Brahmasutras attempted to set forth the unanimous teachings of the Upanishads and defend them against possible and actual objections. His sutras being brief, were open to different interpretations. Various commentaries thus came to be written to elaborate the  doctrines of each Vedantic thought in their own light. Each of them tried to justify its position as the only one consistent with the revealed texts (Shrutis) and the sutras. The author of each of the chief commentaries (bhashya) became the founder of a particular school of Vedanta.<ref name=":3" /> We have various schools of Vedanta advocated by Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and later day proponents such as Vallabhacharya, Nimbarka, and Chaitanya Prabhu. The schools are named after the relation they see between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] and according to <ref>Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad. (1978) Studies in the History of Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. p.267</ref>

# '''Advaita Vedanta''' (Absolute Non-dualism) of Sri Adi Sankaracharya, there is no difference between jivatman and Brahman.

* According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}

# '''Dvaita''' (Absolute Dualism) of Sri Madhavacharya, the jivatman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.

* According to Dvaita the jīvātman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.  

# '''Vishishtadvaita''' (Qualified Non-dualism) of Sri Ramanujacharya, the jivatman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.

* According to Vishishtadvaita, the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.

# '''Shuddhadvaita''' (Pure Nin-dualism) of Sri Vallabhacharya, the jivatman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jivatman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.

* According to Shuddhadvaita, the jīvātman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jīvātman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.

# '''Achintya-bhedabheda''' (Inconceivable difference and non-difference) school of Sri. Chaitanya Prabhu, there is simultaneous oneness and multiplicity of Brahman.  

Sivananda gives the following explanation:

Other than the Advaita school (and Vijnanabhikshu's Avibhaga-lakshanadvaita), every school of Vedanta recognizes the necessity of devotion or Bhakti in addition to knowledge as the means to the attainment of moksha or freedom from bondage.

{{quote|Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|p=217}}}}

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group=web name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> as well as Samkhya,<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins".{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:

Sivananda gives the following explanation:<blockquote>Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.</blockquote>

{{quote|[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}

===Common features===

=== Common Tenets of Darshanas and Vedanta ===

Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:{{sfn|Sheridan|1985|p=136}} 

All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>

* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.

* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion. Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.

* Bondage is subjection to [[Saṃsāra]], the cycle of death and rebirth.

* [[Moksha|Liberation]] is deliverance from this cycle.

Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or [[Testimony|shabda pramāna]], as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or [[Perception|pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or [[Inference|anumana]], are considered to be subordinate (but valid).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}}{{sfn|Raju|1992}}

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core: 

* '''Concept of Brahman''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.

* '''Concept of Atman''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" /> All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.

* '''Concept of Karma''' - Actions or karma help prepare the mind (Chittashuddhi) for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards are renounced. Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self. Karma is intricately related to rewards of action such as Papa (demerits) and Punya (merits) which are adrstha or unseen effects.

* '''Concept of Moksha''' - Liberation is deliverance from the punarjanma cycle leads to Moksha. It is regarded as the highest aim of human life.  

Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes Vedanta irreconcileable with [[Mimamsa]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-176}}

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:

==Schools of Vedanta==

* Realization of the distinction between ‘person’ and ‘thing’.

{{Subschools of Vedanta|A basic classification of the Vedanta theologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheridan |first=Daniel |authorlink= |title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HqqfxYcw4JIC |accessdate=2012-12-12 |year=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn= |page=139}}</ref>{{sfn|Raju|1992}}{{sfn|Sivananda|1993}}<ref>[http://content.iskcon.org/icj/7_2/72surya.html Gerald Surya, ''Review of "A Critique of A. C. Bhaktivedanta" by K. P. Sinha'']</ref>}}

* Realization of the identity between ‘thing' and the Supreme Entity.

* Realization of the identity between ‘person’ and the Supreme Entity.

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different interpretations of the [[Upanishad]]s and the [[Brahma Sutra]]s arose. There are three,{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}} four,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-200}} five<ref name="Washington" /> or six{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{refn|group=note|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}} which are prominent:

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''Parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman. 

* [[Bhedabheda]], as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> or even the 4th century{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}

** Svabhavikabhedabheda or [[Dvaitādvaita]], founded by [[Nimbarka]]<ref name="Washington" /> in the 13th century

** [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE)

* [[Vishishtadvaita]], also a subschool of bhedabheda, founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE)

Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in [[India]].

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

===Bhedabheda===

===Vedanta Sampradayas===

[[Bhedabheda]] (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda"/> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}

Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference", existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.

[[Dvaitādvaita]] was propounded by [[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (13th century), based upon [[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]], which was taught by [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]]. According to this school, the ''jīvātman'' is at once the same and yet different from Brahman.  The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as [[Krishna]].<ref name="Vedanta"/>

===Shuddhādvaita===

====Dvaitādvaita====

[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple Proof Corpus (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of [[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2), Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>Brahmavād Saṅgraha, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>  

[[Dvaitādvaita]] was propounded by [[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (13th century), based upon [[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]], which was taught by [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]]. According to this school, the ''jīvātman'' is at once the same and yet different from Brahman. The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as [[Krishna]].<ref name="Vedanta" />

===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===

====Shuddhādvaita====

Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies{{sfn|Prabhupada|1972}} within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'.  It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].

[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta" />On the basis of quadruple Proof Corpus (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of [[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2), Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>Brahmavād Saṅgraha, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref> 

===Advaita Vedānta===

 

====Advaita Vedānta====

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

===Vishishtadvaita===

====Vishishtadvaita====

[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta"/>{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}

[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta" />{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}

===Dvaita===

====Dvaita====

[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.

[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta"/>

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta" />

==Schools of thought==

==Schools of thought==

===Vedanta===

===Vedanta===

 

====Advaita Vedanta====

====Advaita Vedanta====

{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name="jeffreybrodd">Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47</ref><ref name="barbarasca">Barbara Holdrege (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 241-242</ref><ref name="rdalal">Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

 

Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref> Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">Das, A. C. (1952). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics]. ''Philosophy East and West'', ''2''(2), 144–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304</nowiki></ref> it is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes. , no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>

In [[Advaita Vedanta]], nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /><ref name="williamw">William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)</ref> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

In [[Advaita Vedanta]], nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /><ref name="williamw">William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)</ref> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

Example verses from [[Bhagavad-Gita]] include:{{Quote|

Example verses from [[Bhagavad-Gita]] include:

 

====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====

====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====

The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality. Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

====Dvaita Vedanta====

====Dvaita Vedanta====

  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

==References==

==References==

[[Category:Vedanta| ]]

[[Category:Vedanta| ]]

[[Category:Darshanas]]

[[Category:Darshanas]]

<references />

<references />