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== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as Yoga and Nyaya, and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  

Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  

The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

# What would “global justice” look like?

# What would “global justice” look like?

The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness. Philosophy whether Eastern  Advaita Vedanta or Modern Western Philosophy all of them are vitally connected with consciousness.

The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.  

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’'' meaning वेदानाम्  अन्तः।  or ''<nowiki/>'end of Vedas''' and indeed, many of these texts are found at the end of each of [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]]. In Shabdakalpadhruma<ref>See word [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80 Vedanta on Page 4/501]</ref>, Hemachandra mentions Vedanta to be Upanishads.  

The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’'' meaning वेदानाम्  अन्तः।  or ''<nowiki/>'end of Vedas''' and indeed, many of these texts are found at the end of each of [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]]. In Shabdakalpadhruma<ref name=":1">See word [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80 Vedanta on Page 4/501]</ref>, Hemachandra mentions Vedanta to be Upanishads.  

: वेदान्तो नाम उपनिषत्-प्रमाणं तदुपकारीणि शारीरकसूत्रादीनि च । इति परमहंसपरिव्राजकाचार्य्य श्रीसदानन्द-योगीन्द्रविरचितवेदान्तसारः ॥

: वेदान्तो नाम उपनिषत्-प्रमाणं तदुपकारीणि शारीरकसूत्रादीनि च । इति परमहंसपरिव्राजकाचार्य्य श्रीसदानन्द-योगीन्द्रविरचितवेदान्तसारः ॥

: Vedanta signifies the Upanishads, the means of right knowledge (with respect to Self) and the Sharirika sutras and other (works) helpful in understanding them, as per Vedantasara (text) composed by Sadananda Yogindra Acharya.

: Vedanta signifies the Upanishads, the means of right knowledge (with respect to Self) and the Sharirika sutras and other (works) helpful in understanding them, as per Vedantasara (text) composed by Sadananda Yogindra Acharya.

At the end or culmination of the Vedas, in the sense that they embody the highest philosophical knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads, are also called Uttara Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called '''Uttara Mimamsa''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa which deals with the previous part of the Vedas, namely the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]]. Thus, both Purva and Uttara Mimamsa It also refers to the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry' in the Brahmana granthas. Purva Mimamsa, is called Karma Mimamsa, or is simply called as Mimamsa, deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic mantras in Samhita and Brahmanas, while Uttara Mimamsa or usually called as Vedanta or Jnana Mimamsa as it deals with the philosophical knowledge of [[Upanishads]] or the ''Jnana-kanda'' of the Vedas.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

At the end or culmination of the Vedas, in the sense that they embody the highest philosophical knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads, are also called Uttara Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called '''Uttara Mimamsa''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa which deals with the previous part of the Vedas, namely the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]]. Thus, both Purva and Uttara Mimamsa are directly based on the Vedas. Purva Mimasa refers to the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry' in the Brahmana granthas, is also called Karma Mimamsa, or is simply called as Mimamsa. It deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic mantras in Samhita and Brahmanas, while Uttara Mimamsa, also called as Vedanta or Jnana Mimamsa, deals with the philosophical knowledge of [[Upanishads]] or the ''Jnana-kanda'' of the Vedas.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

== Aims and Characteristics of Vedanta ==

== Aims and Characteristics of Vedanta ==

The philosophy of Vedanta, like all other systems of thought, is an attempt to clearly understand and offer an explanation of the world as it appears to us in our knowledge. It is an attempt to determine the nature of the Ultimate Reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to make out clearly the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.

The philosophy of Vedanta, like all other systems of thought, is an attempt to clearly understand and offer an explanation of all things (vastu vichara) in the world as it appears to us in our knowledge.  

 

 

It is an attempt to determine the nature of the Ultimate Reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to clearly understand the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.

=== Nature of Texts ===

=== Nature of Texts ===

The ''Vedanta'' includes the class of literature under the heading [[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthana Trayi]], namely the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], [[Brahmasutra (ब्रह्मसूत्र)|Brahmasutras]] or Sharirakasutras and [[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavadgita]]. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas summarized in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:

The ''Vedanta'' includes the class of literature under the heading [[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthana Trayi]], namely the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], [[Brahmasutra (ब्रह्मसूत्र)|Brahmasutras]] or Sharirakasutras and [[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavadgita]]. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas summarized in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:

# The ''[[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhita]],'' ''[[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]]'' and the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' collectively form the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]. The ''[[Upanishads]]'' discuss the philosophical aspects of the ''[[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]'' and with respect to their being at end of the Brahmana and Aranyaka texts they are termed Vedanta.

# The ''[[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhita]],'' ''[[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]]'' and the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' collectively form the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]. The ''[[Upanishads]]'' discuss the philosophical aspects of the ''[[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]'' and with respect to their being at end of the Brahmana and Aranyaka texts they are termed Vedanta.

# In respect to the their time of study, the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' were studied the last, during the last two ashramas in a man's life namely the Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.

# In respect to the their time of study, the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' were studied the last, during the last two ashramas in a man's life namely the [[Vanaprasthashrama (वानप्रस्थाश्रमः)|Vanaprastha]] and [[Sannyasashrama (सन्न्यासाश्रमः)|Sannyasa]].

# The ''[[Upanishads]]'' mark the culmination of Vedic thought.<ref name=":0" />

# The ''[[Upanishads]]'' mark the culmination of Vedic thought.<ref name=":0" />

=== Style of Composition of Vedanta Texts ===

=== Style of Composition of Vedanta Texts ===

A major portion of the Vedanta literature is composed in ‘Sutra’ format, or aphorisms, example - अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा A ‘[[Sutras (सूत्राणि)|Sutra]]’ is a short statement/phrase/rule/letters which is capable of being remembered, in the oral tradition. The brevity of the Sutra, while making it easy to remember, provides the commentator opportunity to comment on that and draw his own interpretation. The Sutras of Purva Mimamsa have been composed by Jaimini, and have been commented upon by various commentators like Shabara, Kumarila Bhatta, and Prabhakara. The commentaries are called as “[[Bhashya (भाष्यम्)|Bhashya]]”, and commentators ‘Bhashyakara’. Many a time, the commentator composed his own shlokas, for easy memorisation, and provided his own commentary on what he has composed.

A major portion of the Vedanta literature is composed in ‘Sutra’ format, or aphorisms, for example - अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा। A ‘[[Sutras (सूत्राणि)|Sutra]]’ is a short statement/phrase/rule/letters which is capable of being remembered, in the oral tradition. The brevity of the Sutra, while making it easy to remember, provides the commentator opportunity to comment on that and draw his own interpretation. The commentaries are called as “[[Bhashya (भाष्यम्)|Bhashya]]”, and the commentators ‘Bhashyakara’. Many a time, the commentator composed his own shlokas, for easy memorization, and provided his own commentary on what he has composed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.  

== Subject matter of Vedanta ==

=== Right Knowledge ===

The chief subject matter of Vedanta involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning about revealing Brahman.  

The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />

Vedanta holds that Pure Consciousness has three forms

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or [[pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

- as associated with (that is, manifested as) the subject or knower (or Consciousness limited by the mind)

As discussed in the previous section, Badarayana's Brahmasutras attempted to set forth the unanimous teachings of the Upanishads and defend them against possible and actual objections. His sutras being brief, were open to different interpretations. Various commentaries thus came to be written to elaborate the  doctrines of each Vedantic thought in their own light. Each of them tried to justify its position as the only one consistent with the revealed texts (Shrutis) and the sutras. The author of each of the chief commentaries (bhashya) became the founder of a particular school of Vedanta.<ref name=":3" /> We have various schools of Vedanta advocated by Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and later day proponents such as Vallabhacharya, Nimbarka, and Chaitanya Prabhu. The schools are named after the relation they see between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] and according to <ref>Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad. (1978) Studies in the History of Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. p.267</ref>

- as associated with the object

# '''Advaita Vedanta''' (Absolute Non-dualism) of Sri Adi Sankaracharya, there is no difference between jivatman and Brahman.

# '''Dvaita''' (Absolute Dualism) of Sri Madhavacharya, the jivatman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.

- as associated with the mental state and perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.

Other than the Advaita school (and Vijnanabhikshu's Avibhaga-lakshanadvaita), every school of Vedanta recognizes the necessity of devotion or Bhakti in addition to knowledge as the means to the attainment of moksha or freedom from bondage.

Sivananda gives the following explanation:<blockquote>Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.</blockquote>

The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.

The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}

=== Common Tenets of All Schools of Vedanta ===

* According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}

All the systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>

* According to Dvaita the jīvātman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.  

* According to Vishishtadvaita, the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.

* According to Shuddhadvaita, the jīvātman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jīvātman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and the world.

{{quote|Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.}}

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group=web name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins".{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:

Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:

{{quote|[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}

* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahmasutra (ब्रह्मसूत्र)|Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavad Gita]]''.

* Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self.  Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.

* Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth.

* Liberation is deliverance from this cycle leading to Moksha.

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:—

Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core: 

* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.

* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion.  Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.

Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or [[Testimony|shabda pramāna]], as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or [[Perception|pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or [[Inference|anumana]], are considered to be subordinate (but valid).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}}{{sfn|Raju|1992}}

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes Vedanta irreconcileable with [[Mimamsa]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-176}}

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref name="IEPBheda" group="web">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:

==Schools of Vedanta==

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

{{Subschools of Vedanta|A basic classification of the Vedanta theologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheridan |first=Daniel |authorlink= |title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HqqfxYcw4JIC |accessdate=2012-12-12 |year=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn= |page=139}}</ref>{{sfn|Raju|1992}}{{sfn|Sivananda|1993}}<ref>[http://content.iskcon.org/icj/7_2/72surya.html Gerald Surya, ''Review of "A Critique of A. C. Bhaktivedanta" by K. P. Sinha'']</ref>}}

The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different interpretations of the [[Upanishad]]s and the [[Brahma Sutra]]s arose. There are three,{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}} four,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-200}} five<ref name="Washington" /> or six{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{refn|group=note|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}} which are prominent:

# as associated with (that is, manifested as) the subject or knower (or Consciousness limited by the mind), the [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] (pramatr) - Pramatr-chaitanyam

* [[Bhedabheda]], as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> or even the 4th century{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}

# as associated with the object (Vishaya) - Vishaya-chaitanyam

** Svabhavikabhedabheda or [[Dvaitādvaita]], founded by [[Nimbarka]]<ref name="Washington" /> in the 13th century

# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam

** [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE)

** [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}}

* [[Vishishtadvaita]], also a subschool of bhedabheda, founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE)

* [[Dvaita]], founded by [[Shri Madhvacharya]] (1199–1278 CE)

Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in [[India]].

Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref>

===Bhedabheda===

===Bhedabheda===

[[Bhedabheda]] (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda"/> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}

According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}

===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===

===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===

Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies{{sfn|Prabhupada|1972}} within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'.  It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].

Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'.  It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].

===Advaita Vedānta===

===Advaita Vedānta===

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

====Advaita Vedanta====

====Advaita Vedanta====

Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">Das, A. C. (1952). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics]. ''Philosophy East and West'', ''2''(2), 144–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304</nowiki></ref> it is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes. , no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

 

Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name="jeffreybrodd">Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47</ref><ref name="barbarasca">Barbara Holdrege (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 241-242</ref><ref name="rdalal">Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>

In [[Advaita Vedanta]], nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /><ref name="williamw">William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)</ref> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

In [[Advaita Vedanta]], nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /><ref name="williamw">William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)</ref> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

Example verses from [[Bhagavad-Gita]] include:{{Quote|

Example verses from [[Bhagavad-Gita]] include:

 

====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====

====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====

The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality. Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

====Dvaita Vedanta====

====Dvaita Vedanta====

  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}